Kuyenera kwa kuzenga mlandu kwa ajuli opanda tsankho ndi chimodzi cha zitetezero zofunika kwambiri m'malamulo a ku America, kutumikira monga kufufuza mwachindunji pa ulamuliro wa boma ndi chitsimikizo cha chilungamo kwa woimbidwa mlandu. Kuyenera kumeneku, kovomerezedwa ndi makhoti a sikisi Owonjezera ndi kugwiritsidwa ntchito m'makhoti kudzera pa 149th Amendment, kuika chiweruzo cha nzika wamba pa likulu la kuyang'anira chiweruzo. Njira imene bungwe lopanda tsankholi limasonkhanitsidwa nayo imadziwika monga juli, kapena chigamulo chofanana, njira yovomerezeka, yalamulo, ndi yothandiza kumvetsetsa mmene dongosolo la malamulo limachitira kuti lipereke mlandu wolungama, munthu ayenera choyamba kuzindikira njira yolimba ndi yosamalitsa kwambiri yosankhira amene adzapanga chigamulo.

Lamulo Lokhudza Kupanda Tsankho

Chiyambi cha mlandu wa oweruza chingakhale ndi chiyambi cha Magna Carta , koma mkhalidwe wake wamakono mu United States uli chotulukapo chachindunji cha Woyambitsa kusakhulupirira ulamuliro wachiweruzo ndi woyang'anira. Chisinthiko cha Sikisith Reformation chimapereka chitsimikizo chakuti "wonenezedwa adzalandira kuyenera kwa mlandu wapoyera ndi wapoyera, ndi woweruza wosakondera wa Boma ndi chigawo kumene udzakhala. Khoti Lali la Supreme latsimikizira kuti lamuloli limafuna kuti ajuli atengedwe kuchokera ku gwero loimira mbali yoyera ya chigawo cha chitaganya. "mpauprrat" chimenechi sicho chiyeneretso chachi, choyenerera ku komiti yomalizira, koma chimalamulira kuti chipani choyamba cha oyembekezera kubadwacho. Chosankha chogwirizana cha lamulo chogwirizana m'gulu la chitaganyachi. Chogwirizana ndi lamulo lachi. Chogwirizana cha , chogwirizana ndi chigamu , chogwirizana cha m'nkhanisoko: "F]

Kusonkhanitsa Maziko a Chitetezo: Maziko a Chitetezo

Njira ya kusankha ajuli inayamba kale loya aliyense asanafunse woyembekezera kukhala woweruza. Imayamba ndi kusonkhanitsa ndandanda ya ajuli yapamwamba. Makhoti amajambula maina kuchokera ku zolembedwa za laisensi ya boma, ndandanda ya ovota, ndi m'madera ena, ndandanda ya misonkho kapena ndandanda ya makadi a khadi a boma. Cholinga cha kalasi yoyambayi ndicho kupanga chigawo chachikulu ndi chamitundumitundu ya nzika zimene oyenerera angaitanidwe.

Makhoti ambiri a m'makhoti a m'makhoti "Key Man" , kumene oweruza a bungwe la oweruza anasankha ziŵalo zotchuka za chitaganya kuti alembe ena. Dongosolo limeneli linali losavuta kwambiri kuchotsa Aafirika ndi anthu ena ang'onoang'ono ku mahule, makamaka ku South. Chikalata cha Jury Font ndi Service cha mu 1968 chinathetsa ntchito imeneyi m'makhoti a boma mwa kuchotsapo zigamulo zodzisankhira, zotsala. Ngakhale kuti chitukuko chimenechi chinali , mavuto amakono akupitirizabe. Anthu ambiri osakhala a ku America, a zaka zingapo, kapena anthu amene ali ndi maadiresikripire a boma angapidwe pansi pa malingana. Makhoti awo ayenera kutsimikizira kuti madeti awo ayambenso ndi kuwonjezera kuswa koyenera kutsatsatsa kwa anthu otsatsatsa mtanda. Anthu otsalawo, akukhala ndi zaka zokwanira, a zaka zambiri, akudziŵa bwino, ndi kulephera kwa Angelesi.

Luso ndi Sayansi ya Zovala Zokongola

"Voir jast," yochokera ku tanthauzo lakale la Chifrenchi "kulankhula chowonadi," ndiyo njira yolimba ya kusanthula tsankho . Ilidi mbali ya ntchito yosankha ajuli. Woweruza, loya, ndi loya wotetezera aliyense ali ndi mbali yakupangitsa kuvumbula tsankhu limene lingaletse woweruzayo kugamula mlanduwo paumboni wokha woperekedwa m’khoti.

Mkati mwa kuopsa kwa oweruza, okhoza kukhala oweruza amafunsidwa pa nkhani zosiyanasiyana. Attorney amafufuza za chiyambi cha jurner, ntchito, maphunziro, ndi zokumana nazo zaumwini, makamaka zimene zingagwirizane ndi mlanduwo. Amafunsa za chidziŵitso cha mlanduwo kuchokera ku nkhani za atolankhani, kuzoloŵerana ndi mboni kapena maloya, ndi malingaliro okhudza malamulo alamulo. Mwachitsanzo, m'nkhani yaupandu, wokhoza kufunsa ngati angaonedi kuti woimbidwa mlanduyo ali wopanda liwongo ndi kufuna kuti atsimikizire mlandu wosatsutsika. Woweruza wina amene akuvomereza kuti ayembekezere woimbidwa mlanduyo kuchitira umboni kapena amene amakhulupirira kuti kumangidwa kuli kodziimba mlandu.

Zolinga Zabwino za Anthu Otchuka

Mapemphowo amatumikira cholinga cha mbali ziŵiri. Choyamba ndi kufufuza kokha: kusonkhanitsa chidziŵitso cholungamitsa chitokoso kaamba ka chochititsa kapena kudziŵitsa chiwopsezo. Lachiŵiri nlokopa ndi lamaphunziro. Maloya ogwira ntchito bwino amagwiritsira ntchito kuyambitsa nkhani zazikulu za mlandu wawo, kutsutsa ajuli yowononga umboni umene ungatuluke mkati mwa kuzenga mlandu, ndi kuyamba kuyambitsa kugwirizana ndi otetezera. Loya wofuna ufulu wa munthu aliyense payekha ndi wokayikira ulamuliro, pamene woweruzayo angayanje awo okhala ndi zogwirizana zolimba ndi lamulo ndi njira ya lamulo. Pabwalo la jutal juorfs" jurs .

Kusintha Zinthu: Kubuka kwa Chochititsa ndi Chothetsa Chiyeso

Pamene mafunso avumbula kuti pali tsankho limene silingathe kuchiritsidwa ndi malangizo a woweruza, maloya ali ndi ziŵiya ziŵiri zoyambirira zochotsera oweruza: zovuta za kuyambitsa ndi kuthetsera mavuto.

Mavuto Okhala ndi Chifukwa Chake

Chitokoso cha chifukwa cha kutsutsana ndi chifunsiro kwa woweruza kuchotsa woweruza pa chifukwa chenicheni, chomveka. Zifukwa zimenezi n’zopanda malire, koma zitsanzo zofala zimaphatikizapo kuvomereza kwa juli kunyada gulu la fuko, unansi waumwini ndi mmodzi wa maguluwo, lingaliro lotsimikizirika pa liwongo la woimbidwa mlandu, kapena kulephera kugwiritsira ntchito lamulo monga malangizo, monga chitsutso chachiphamaso cha imfa m'nkhani. Palibe malire a ziŵerengero za mavuto kaamba ka kuchititsa loya. Woweruzayo amachita zinthu monga wotsutsa waudindo, kuyang'anira woweruzayo ndi kusankha kaya ngati kulakwakodi kapena kulakwa. Ngati woweruzayo akana mlanduyo, ayenera kuyerekezera kaya kuchotsa mlanduwo.

Mavuto Oopsa Ndiponso Chiphunzitso cha Chibatso

Zitokoso zothetsa mavuto ndizo chida champhamvu koma chotsutsana. Iwo amalola loya kuchotsa woweruza popanda kutchula chifukwa chake. Nkhani yakale imasonyeza kuti maloya ali ndi chidziŵitso chamwadzidzidzi ponena za chilungamo cha jaji chimene chingakhale chovuta kuchifotokoza. Chiŵerengero cha kubwezera nchochepa kwambiri mwa lamulo, kuyambira 3 mpaka 10 malinga ndi kukula kwa milanduyo ndi ulamuliro wake.

Kugwiritsa ntchito kosalamuliridwa kwa zitokoso zopinga m'mbiri kunatsogolera ku tsankho lofala. Oweruza onse a ku Africa adakantha nthaŵi zonse oweruza a ku juli kuchokera ku majuli oyesera kuimbidwa mlandu wa Black. Mchitidwe umenewu unatsutsidwa m'nkhani ya Supreme Court Batson v. Kentucky. Khoti linatsutsa kuti woweruzayo agwiritse ntchito zopikitsa kuchotsa zitokoso m’mafuko pa maziko a fuko la kuswa ezakuchinjiriza Excial Claus Claine Evenee wa Inite. Chigamucho chinakhazikitsa njira yachitatu ya [FLD:] . [FLT:]

  1. Wolimbana ndi kuombayo ayenera kukhazikitsa prima facie [1] mlandu wakuti kulirako kunasonkhezeredwa ndi fuko.
  2. Gulu lochititsa chidwilo liyenera kupereka mafotokozedwe a "race-neut" kaamba ka kulirako.
  3. Woweruza ayenera kusankha kaya ngati malongosoledwewo ali chifukwa chochitira tsankho ndi cholinga.

[[FLT: 0] Kugwira Batson [[FLT: 1] pambuyo pake kunafutukulidwa kuti kuyambike chifukwa cha kugonana (J.E.B. v. Alabama, 1994) ndi fuko. Mosasamala kanthu za zitetezero zimenezi, Batson [[FLT:] chiphunzitso chakhala chosulizidwa kwambiri chifukwa cha kusagwira ntchito. Chifukwa chakuti loya angapereke pafupifupi chifukwa cha fuko lililonse . Zimenezi zachititsa kuwonjezereka kwa "kuyang'anira kwa jala," "kulephera kuona maso," kapena "kukhala m'dera lapamwamba lachipansi"" , kaŵirikaŵiri chimapeza kuti njira yachitatu ikukwaniritsidwa. Mkhalidwe wakukhala wapadera. Kusankha kwachidziŵikitsa. Zimenezi zachititsa kuchotsapo ndi mavuto aakulu kapena kuwongolera ndi malamulo atsopano, monga kutsogolera njira yofanana ndi Washington. [F4]

Kuwopsyeza Kwamakono ku Kusakondera

Ngakhale kuti apolisi asankha okha zochita, apolisi a m’bungwelo amafunika kuonetsetsa kuti akuona kuti nkhaniyo yayamba kuchitikadi.

Kufalitsa Nkhani za M’makampani ndi Zofalitsa za Mayanjano

Milandu yapamwamba ikupanga kufufuza kwakukulu kwa wailesi ndi kanema kumene kungapangitse kukhala kosatheka kupeza ajuli amene sanawonedwe ku chidziŵitso chatsankhu. M’mikhalidwe yotero, makhoti angagwiritsire ntchito "kusintha malo," kusamutsira mlanduwo ku dera lina kapena boma kumene kusafalitsidwa kwambiri. Oweruza angaperekenso malamulo omveka kuti aletse maloya ndi zigawenga kulankhula ndi otsatsa malonda. Mlingo waukulu kwambiri ndi kutsendereza, kumene ajuli amapatulidwa m'hotela ndi kuletsa kukhala ndi dziko la kunja kwa dziko kaamba kanthaŵi ya mlandu.

Maloya a boma afufuza nkhani zokhudza anthu pa Intaneti. Tsopano ndi chizoloŵezi kuti afufuze nkhani zokhudza anthu amene angadzapeze chithandizo cha boma panthaŵi imene anthu akufufuza modetsa nkhaŵa kuti apeze umboni wa tsankho kapena moyo wawo. Komanso, khalidwe loipa lochokera ku manyuzi ocheza ndi anthu. Monga kutumiza umboni wokhudza nkhani kapena kufufuza pa Intaneti pa Intaneti. Kufufuza koopsa kwa 2022 ndi kufufuza Khoti la National Center ya Boma la Boma anapeza kuti kugwiritsira ntchito Intaneti kwa kufufuza zinthu kumakhala vuto losalekeza. Oweruza tsopano amapereka malangizo oletsa kufufuza kulikonse pa Intaneti kapena milandu yokhudzana ndi makhoti ena, ndi makompyuta ena oletsa kugwiritsa ntchito magetsi.

Maula Oyenera ndi Kusankha Mwasayansi

Malo ena otsimikizira kupanda tsankhu ndiwo kutsimikizira kutsimikizira kotsimikizirika. Ngakhale woweruza woona mtima kwambiri angasunge malingaliro kapena mayanjano osazindikira amene amayambukira kupenda kwawo umboni. Makhoti ayamba kuvomereza chenicheni chimenechi. Oweruza ena tsopano amapereka malangizo a tsankho "kukondera" kwa wotsutsayo asanayambike mwangozi, kuwaphunzitsa za lingalirolo ndi kuwalimbikitsa kuchotsa tsankhu losazindikira. M’nkhani zina, mboni zaluso zimabweretsedwa kuti zipereke umboni za zotulukapo za kukondera ndi kukumbukira kosatsimikizirika.

Kusankha ajuli kwa sayansi kumadzutsanso mafunso a makhalidwe abwino. Makampani owonjezereka a ajuli amagwiritsira ntchito magulu ongopeka, milandu yongopeka, ndi kufufuza kwapamwamba kwa chiŵerengero cha anthu kuthandiza maloya kusankha oweruza oyanja. Otsutsa amanena kuti kachitidwe kameneka kamafooketsa lingaliro la oweruza oimira mwa kusintha njira ya kugamula, yosankha yotsalira, yochitira zinthu motsimikiza kumene cholinga chake ndicho kuneneratu za zikhoterero za jutor mmalo mwa kungovumbula kukondera. Otsutsa kuti ndiko kokha njira yodziŵira yowopsa m’nkhani zovuta.

Kusintha Zinthu ndi Mtsogolo mwa Kusankha Zoipa

Njira ya kusankha oweruza siimasintha. Poyankha zophophonya za Batson . Chiphunzitso cha Batson ndi mavuto a nyengo ya makono, maulamuliro angapo akukhazikitsa kusintha kwamphamvu. Maboma ena akusintha kuti athetse mavuto onse, kutsutsana kuti kuipa kumene adakupangira kuletsa tsopano n’kuposa ndi tsankho limene amalola. Ena, monga Washington, ayamba muyezo watsopano walamulo wothetsera mavuto. Khoti Lapamwamba la Washington likuchita kuyesa Depart. Jefferf" imaletsa kugwiritsiridwa ntchito kwa mavuto a kuchotsa popanda cholinga, ngati Washington, kuchotsapo cholinga, kuchotsa cholinga cha kugamula mlanduwo.

Masinthidwe ena amasumika pa kuwongolera uimira wa oweruza. Maboma akuchotsa kusiyanitsa kwa fuko ndi kwa gulu mwa kuchotsa kusokonezeka kwachikhalire kwa mafeloni, kufutukulidwa kwa manyukiliya ndi mapepala a inshuwalansi ya ulova, ndi kuchepetsa chiŵerengero cha zifukwa zogwirira ntchito (monga ngati kuchotsa maloya ntchito, madokotala, ndi akuluakulu a boma). Kusintha kumeneku kumakhala ndi cholinga chakuti ajuli asonyezedi chikumbumtima cha chitaganya, kupanga njira ya kusankha ajuli ophatikizidwamo kukhala yolungama. [[FLT]] [FLT:]

Kumaliza

Njira yosankha ajuli si vuto la boma ayi. Ndi njira ya malamulo imene cholinga cha ajuli opanda tsankho chikutsatiridwa ndi kukwaniritsidwa popanda ungwiro. Kuchokera pa kuitanidwa kwa nzika ku nkhondo zazikulu zotha kuukira ufulu wa oimbidwa mlandu ndi zopinga za anthu. Pamene kuli kwakuti palibe njira iliyonse ya chigamulo ya chigamulo yachisawawa ndiyo kuyesayesa kwadala kumanga mlawu pakati pa chiweruzo chosadziŵika bwino ndi chigamulo chachindunji. Dongo la oweruza limapikisanitsidwa mosalekeza, kulinganiza zoyenera za malamulo ndi ufulu wa anthu kugawana nawo.