Kumvetsetsa Kugwirizana kwa Boma m’Zoyendera Zapoyera

Chitetezero cha boma ndi chiphunzitso chalamulo chozikidwa kwambiri m'malamulo a ku America. Chitetezero ndi mabungwe awo kuti asaikidwe mlandu popanda chilolezo chawo. Monga mabasi a m'mizinda, masiteshoni a sitima zapamtunda, zingwe za sitima zapamtunda, ndi mautumiki a boma oyendera, chiphunzitsochi chimapanga malo apadera ndi ovuta kaŵirikaŵiri kaamba ka kuukira boma. Oyendetsa galimoto ovulazidwa m'ngozi, antchito oyang'anizana ndi mikangano ya ntchito, kapena omanga nyumba zofuna kulipirira angapeze kuti zonena zawozo zithetsedwe mwadzidzidzi ndi malamulo a Chingelezi ndi Deptiontion.

Chifukwa chakuti maulamuliro a zaulendo a boma kapena boma lakwawo, iwo amaloŵa m'malo mwa chitetezo chalamulo chimenechi. Komabe, chiphunzitsocho sichokwanira. Mkupita kwa nthaŵi, makhoti ndi makhoti apanga malamulo, zopatula, ndi madongosolo a malamulo amene amalola ena kupitiriza. Kwa akatswiri a zamalamulo, akuluakulu a zaulendo, ndi ochirikiza malamulo, kuzindikira bwino mfundo zimenezi nkofunika kuti athe kufufuza, kuyang’anira, ndi kutsimikizira kuti magulu ovulazidwawo ali ndi njira yopezera chiweruzo pamene kuli koyenera.

Maziko a Mbiri ndi Malamulo

Mpumulo wa Khumi ndi Umodzi wa Mfundo Zoyambirira

Lamulo la ufulu wodzilamulira lisanayambike pa malamulo a U.S. lamulo la Chingelezi linavomereza kuti "mfumu siingachite cholakwika," kutanthauza kuti chisoti chachifumu sichingasunthidwe popanda chilolezo chake. Pambuyo pa kusintha kwa America, amavomereza mfundo imeneyi. Buku la Demonth Amend Amendment , lovomerezedwa mu 1795, lotsimikizidwa zoonekeratu kuti boma silinatengedwe ndi masuti a boma obweretsedwa m’khoti ndi nzika za boma kapena mitundu ina. M'kupita kwanthaŵi, Khoti Lapamwamba linakulitsa zimenezi kuti liphatikize masuti a nzika za boma, kuswa milandu yambiri yachinsinsi m'khoti logamulo lopanda chivomerezo kapena bungwe lotetezera malamulo.

Chitetezo chimenechi chimafikira ku mabungwe a boma ndi ziwiya, kuphatikizapo maulamuliro a zoyendera za anthu. Mu Regents of the University of California v. Doe (1997), khotilo linatsimikizira kuti kutetezera kwa khumi ndi limodzi kwa Demendment kutetezera zinthu zimene zili "nkhondo za boma," mosasamala kanthu kuti zili ndi mphamvu ya kusungirira kapena kusutidwa pansi pa lamulo la boma. Kuyesako kumasumika pa thayo lalamulo la boma la kuweruza gulu, mlingo wa kulamulira kwa boma, ndi kuchirikiza ndalama za bungwe.

Chilengedwe Choyenera: Boma ndi Kulephera Kulamulira

Makhoti a boma amadalira kwambiri mfundo yakuti anthu adzitetezere okha ku makhoti a m'makhoti a m'dzikolo pa nthawi ya Kusintha kwa Zaka Zoyamba ndi Zotsatira za Makhoti. Makhoti a boma, amadalira pa malamulo a anthu onse oteteza ufulu wa munthu, amene agwirizana kapena kusinthidwa ndi malamulo. Mabungwe a boma angalembetse kapena kukhazikitsa mafomu awiri onse. Oseŵerawo angasokoneze: munthu wofuna kuweruza angakhale ndi mawu omveka pansi pa boma kuti achitepo kanthu m’khoti, koma ngati ulamuliro woyendetsa zinthu uonedwa ngati dzanja la boma, mawu omwewo angaletsedwe m’khotilo lopanda lamulo kapena loletsa kulowa m’khoti.

Mmene Mfumu Imachitira Zinthu Zoyendera

Kusintha Zinthu Monga Zida za Boma

Kutsimikizira ngati ulamuliro wa zoyendera za anthu ukhoza kuyesa kutetezera anthu, makhoti akufufuza kapangidwe kake. Mabasi a mzinda amene amagwiritsidwa ntchito mwachindunji ndi boma la boma amaonedwa monga gulu la boma, limene kaŵirikaŵiri silisangalala ndi ufulu wa boma. Komabe, ulamuliro wa boma wonyamula anthu wopangidwa ndi lamulo la boma, wochirikizidwa ndi boma, ndi kulamulidwa ndi akuluakulu a boma omwe aikidwa ndi boma omwe alidi oyenereradi kukhala dzanja la boma. Mwachitsanzo, Washington Metropolitan Transit Authouthority (WAA), yomwe inapangidwa ndi bungwe la WPATES, yakhala ndi chitetezo choyenera chofanana ndi chigwirizano cha boma. WMPA.

Kusankha kumeneku kuli ndi zotsatirapo zenizeni. Ngati wokwerayo wagwa pa sitima yapansi panthaka, angatchule bungwe loyenderalo kukhala woimbidwa mlandu. Bungwelo lingafulumire mwamsanga kuchotsa mwa kudalira pa kudziimira. Khotilo limapenda kutheketsa bungwelo kukhazikitsa malamulo, kuyendetsa kwake ndalama, ndi kuyendetsa kwa boma. Ngati chitetezero cha matenda chigwiritsiridwe ntchito, woyang'anira ayenera kuyang'ana ku statory rautivers kapena kumbali zina.

Kusintha kwa Zinthu Kolakwika

Mfumu yolamulira yoteteza thupi ku matenda imakhudza milandu yambiri ya boma yokhudza kudutsa anthu onse:

  • Kuvulala kwaumwini ndi imfa yolakwika: [[FL:1] Ngozi zochititsidwa ndi kunyalanyaza ntchito ya mabasi, sitima, kapena kulephera kukonza.
  • [[MTL:0] Mikangano ya kubwezera: [[FULT:1] Tsankho, kubwezera, kapena kupempha malipiro ndi ola kwa antchito apamsipo.
  • Kutsutsana: Kusintha kwa ntchito kwa ogulitsa, makampani omanga, kapena ma consitailres.
  • Zikalata za ufulu wa Chikole: Malamulo a malamulo kapena machitachita osagwirizana ndi boma, monga ngati kusiyanitsa fuko ndi apolisi otsatsa.
  • Kuwonongeka kwa zinthu: Kuwonongeka kwa galimoto za munthu mwini kuchokera ku kuwombana ndi galimoto zoyendera kapena ziwiya zamagetsi.

M’gulu lililonse, woimbidwa mlandu anganene kuti ali ndi chitetezo, akumakakamiza khoti kupenda ngati alipo wokana.

Alendo ndi Azachuma: Njira Zokhalira ndi Kuŵerengera

Lamulo la Federal Tort Limanena za Kusintha kwa Zinthu (FTCA)

FTCA (]28 U.S.C. 76 1346 (b), 2671-2680 ) ndi njira yoyamba yoperekera boma la boma kaamba ka matole ochitidwa ndi antchito ake. Pamene kuli kwakuti mabungwe oyendetsa si a boma, FTC yasonkhezera boma lambiri. Pansi pa FTCA, United States otetezera opambana kaamba ka kutuluka ku ntchito zonyalanyaza kapena kuchotsedwa kwa antchito ogwira ntchito, kufikira ku ukulu wakuti munthu waumwini akakhala woyenerera pansi pa lamulo la malo amene anachitapo ntchitoyo. Zimenezi zikutanthauza kuti ngati ntchitoyo (Grauni) Amirak, amawononga chivulazo cha boma la Amicte, ngakhale kuti likuchitapo kanthu pa malamulo a boma, ngakhale kuti likhoza kukwaniritsa zifunsi kwa lamulo la boma.

Kulankhula Monkitsa kwa Boma Kumanena Zochita ndi Opalamula

Boma lililonse lakhazikitsa mtundu wina wa tort likuchitapo kanthu kuti pambali pa kuletsa kutetezera ulamuliro kwa mabungwe ena a boma, kuphatikizapo maulamuliro oyendetsa zinthu. Mwachitsanzo, makampani a California Gawo afuna lamulo la lamulo la lamulo la lamulo la boma loletsa kukhazikitsa lamulolo. Maboma ena amaika zikole ku mlandu. Amaletsa ndalama zobwezera, kapena kuchepetsa mitundu ya zimene zingabweretsedwe. Mwachitsanzo, ambiri amanena kuti amasunga chitetezo cha mawu okhudza "kukonza suti yoyenerera". Kuweruza, monga ngati zogamula za kulinganiza njira.

Kudzikweza Kochitidwa ndi Malamulo Ochitidwa Pampikisano

Congress ingagonjetse kutetezeredwa kwa boma pamene ichita pansi pa Gawo 5 la 14th Amendment (kutetezera kofanana ndi njira yoyenera). Mwachitsanzo, podzinenera pamutu wakuti VII wa Chigaŵenga cha ufulu wachibadwidwe wa 1964 (kupatulana ntchito) ndi anthu a ku America omwe ali ndi vuto la kulephera kuteteza dziko. [FL:0] Board of Trust of Trust of Alabama v. Garrett [[FLT:] [2001], Khoti Lapamwamba linakhulupirira kuti antchito sangasungedwe ndi ndalama pansi pa ADA. Koma mautumiki a anthu, amene amagwiritsira ntchito ntchito ntchito zoyendera, anasungidwa monga oyenerera kutetezera [FT:] [FT:] [2001] (2001] (muyene: [91], Khoti lapamwamba la ADtlo la chivomezi chimodzi chokha, koma kulephera kukwaniritsa ntchito za kuyendetsa ntchito yothandiza, koma kukwaniritsa mikhalidwe yosanja, imene ingaperekedwera kulephera kuyendetsa kuyendetsa kuyendetsa, koma kuyendetsa, kungolephera kwa makampani.

Kuvomereza Kuvala mu Act ya Transit Agency ya Enatick

Malamulo ena a boma opanga ulamuliro wa oyenda amaphatikizapo kuvomereza kwa mawu. Chinenerocho chingasiyane. Chinenerocho chinganene kuti, "Uulamuliro ungasunge ndi kusutidwa. Makhoti anena kuti chinenero choterocho chokha sichimawononga mphamvu ya kudzilamulira mwadala . spee, ee. Morris v. New York City Transit Authority [1] (N.Y. 1986). Komabe, icho ndi chisonyezero champhamvu cha cholinga cha lamulo. Mayiko ambiri tsopano amafuna ndemanga yomveka bwino ya raiver; chinenero chopeputsa amasonyezedwa m’malo ake.

Malamulo Ochirikiza Opha Anthu ndi Otetezera

Kwa Odziwonetsera: Kugonjetsa Chitetezo Chosalimba

Kutsutsa mwachipambano ulamuliro wa anthu onse woyendera kumafuna kugonjera mosamalitsa. Attorney ayenera kudziŵa chiŵalo chenicheni cha boma, kutsimikizira ngati sichikutetezeredwa, ndiyeno kupeza woletsa wogwira ntchito. Masitepe ofunika akuphatikizapo:

  1. Kufufuza za malo alamulo a bungwelo: Kodi ulamuliro wodutsa ndi dzanja la boma kapena bungwe la kampasi? Onetsetsani malamulo ndi lamulo la milandu.
  2. Mogwirizana ndi zofunika zodzinenera: Maiko ambiri amafuna chidziŵitso cha zimene afuna pakati pa masiku 60 ndi 180. Kuphonya nthaŵi imeneyi kaŵirikaŵiri kumapha.
  3. [[FLT: 0] Kuikiza malamulo: Kuyang'ana ku boma lanena kuti likuchita kapena malamulo ena oyenerera. Mwachitsanzo, Civil Rights Act ya 1871 (42 U.S.C. . . . . . 1983] imalola masuti otsutsana ndi maboma akwawo, koma osati kunena, kuswa malamulo. Maboma amene ali mabungwe a boma angasunthidwe pansi pa 2016.
  4. Itsogolera ndi tsatanetsatane: [[FLT :1] Pewani zinenezo zotsutsana. Sonyezani kuti khalidwe la bungwelo silikutsatira ntchito yapadera.

Kwa Otetezera: Kusunga ndi Kusunga Umodzi

Mabungwe opereka ufulu ayenera kukhazikitsa mphamvu yodzitetezera poyambirira . Zotetezera zingakwezedwe pansi pa ulamuliro wa Federal Procedure 12(b)(1) chifukwa cha kusoŵa ulamuliro wa munthu wodzitetezera. Mfundo zapamwamba zothandizira:

  • Umboni wa kakonzedwe ka bungwelo: Ma-affidavit osonyeza ndalama za boma, kuikidwa kwa mamembala ndi kazembe, ndi kuikidwa kwa boma kumathandiza kukhazikitsa malo a mkono wa dziko.
  • Kutsatira njira zodzinenera: milandu yambiri imalephera chifukwa chakuti wansembeyo sanalembe chilengezo cha panthaŵi yake.
  • Ntchito yodziwitsa: Ngati kudzinenerako kukutokosa chosankha cha malo okonzekera, kutetezera chitetezo pansi pa ntchito ya boma yapadera.
  • Zowonongeka :[FLT :1] Ngakhale ngati chitetezo cha thupi chachotsedwa, zipewa zowonongeka zingagwiritsidwe ntchito. Mwachitsanzo, maboma ambiri amasintha motsutsana ndi makampani a anthu pa $500,000 kapena ochepera.

Kukula kwa Malamulo Okhudza Milandu

F.D.C. v. Meyer (1994]

Pamene kuli kwakuti nkhani yoyambirira imanena F.D.C. v. Meyer , imakula. M’nkhaniyi, Khoti Lalikulu linavomereza kuti FTCA's develoteid protection system system siikufikira ku matomu a magnomenti. M'malo mwake, lamulo la lamulo la FCA la kuletsa kuphwanya lamulo, osati kuswa lamulo la lamulo. Lamulo limeneli nlofunika kuletsa: ngati chigamulo chachina chachinayi chopa cha polisi, FTCA si choyenera; m’malo mwake, [FFFFFF:]: [2]

Hillsborough County . Automated Medical Laboratories, Inc.] (1985)

Mlanduwu unakhudza ngati woteteza ufulu wa munthu wa kudziimira paokha unali wogwira ntchito. Khoti Lapamwamba linavomereza kuti oletsa kutetezeredwa kwa ufulu wa munthu ayenera kukhala omveka ndi osatsutsika. Lamulo lamakhalidwe abwino limeneli limagwira ntchito kwa akuluakulu a boma oyendetsa zinthu: lamulo lachisawawa "iu ndi kusutidwa" m'lamulo silimaletsa kuteteza chitetezo cha boma pa zonse zimene likufuna. Makhoti adzafuna chinenero cholunjika.

[[FLT: 0] Pennhurst State School and Hospital v. Halderman[[FLT: 1] (19984)

Mlandu wosintha zinthu umenewu unakhudza mfundo za m'khoti la Demite Amendment m'bwalo la boma. Khotilo linagamula kuti khoti la boma silingalamulire akuluakulu a boma kuti agwirizane ndi lamulo la boma. Kutumiza kampani ya trash, kumatanthauza kuti ngati woyendetsa milandu wa boma apereka udindo woyendetsa m'khoti la boma chifukwa chophwanya malamulo a boma, khotilo siliyenera kulamulidwa kuti lichitepo kanthu. Mlanduwo uyenera kuperekedwa m’khoti.

Owens v. Mzinda wa Oklahoma City (202)

M'nkhani iyi ya Tenth Countring, wokwera ndege anazenga ulamuliro wa kudutsa wa mzinda pambuyo pa kuvulala kwa ngozi ya basi. Khotilo linasanthula ngati ulamuliro wa kudutsa unali dzanja la boma. Inachita mayeso asanu ndi limodzi a mbali: (1) ngati boma lingakhale loyenera kuweruza; (2) ndalama za bungwelo ndi ufulu wa zachuma; (3) ngati bungwe likuchita ntchito ya boma; (4) ngati linapangidwa ndi boma; ndi (6) ngati bungwelo lingasunthe ndi kusudzulidwa. Khoti linapeza kuti dongosolo la chigawo cha kampani siliri dzanja la boma ndipo chotero silili lolamulira.

Mabuku Othandiza a Malonda ndi Onyamula Anthu

Kusamalira Ngozi ndi Inshuwalansi

Akuluakulu a boma amagula inshuwalansi ya ngongole. M'mayiko ambiri, kugula inshuwalansi yoteteza munthu kudziko lokhala ndi ufulu ku malire a lamulo. Zimenezi zimalimbikitsa mabungwe kuti asunge bwino. Komabe, wogulitsayo amangowonjezera mawu otsatizana ndi lamulolo. Ngati ulamuliro woyendayo wadzitetezera yekha, angasunge chitetezo chake popanda lamulo. Mamanejala a a a kampani ayenera kugwirizana ndi malangizo alamulo kuti atsimikizire kuti inshuwalansi ikhale yogwirizana ndi lamulo la boma.

Kuthetsa Mavuto

Chifukwa chakuti chitetezo cha kudziimira paokha chingakhale chotetezera kotheratu, oimbidwa mlandu kaŵirikaŵiri amakhala ndi mphamvu zolimba kuchiyambi kwa mlandu. Ofufuza angavomereze kuchuluka kwa malo otsika kuti apeŵe upandu wa kuchotsedwa. Mosiyana, ngati wotsutsayo atha kusonyeza chopinga chomveka ndi mfundo zolimba, bungwelo lingakhazikike kuti lipeŵe zigamulo zoipa kapena zigamulo zazikulu za ajuli. Ndalama zowonongedwa ndi zosiyana ndi kupeka kwaumwini, kumene mzera wa woimbidwa mlanduyo ndizo.

Kusintha Malamulo ndi Kutsatira Malamulo

Mayiko ena ayamba kuteteza anthu kuti asatengeke ndi zoyendera za anthu onse, chifukwa chakuti akudziwa kuti anthu ovulala sayenera kutsala popanda mankhwala. Mwachitsanzo, pambuyo pa ngozi zapansi panthambi zapansi panthaka, nyumba ya malamulo ya New York inasintha lamulo la Public Profescial Maguement kuti awonjezere makhonsiti a makhonsi a Metropolitan Transportor Authority Authority. Komabe, mayiko ena asunga chitetezo cholimba kuti ateteze ndalama za anthu zopereŵera. Magulu a anthu andale amatsutsa kuti kuteteza anthu ovutika amene amadalira anthu amene amadaliranawa ndipo alibe njira zina zoyendera. Kulimbana pakati pa mafiscal Concaritation ndi kulowa ku chilungamo kukulimbana ndi kuweruza kukupitirizabe kutsutsana ndi kukhazikitsa malamulo.

Kumaliza

Boma loletsa kutetezedwa kwa boma likupitirizabe kuletsa kuyendetsa bwino zinthu za boma. Maziko ake a mu Demetrimenti ya 11 ndi lamulo wamba amapanga malo ovuta kwambiri ovomerezeka a boma kumene kupambana kumadalira pa kulinganiza kwa pulojekiti ndi kumvetsetsa kwambiri za malamulo. Maulamuliro oteteza thupi, amapereka chitetezo chofunika kwambiri, komanso limakhala ndi udindo wosamalira ntchito zotetezera ndi kuvomereza zofunikira pamene anthu akulephera kugwira ntchito. Kwa anthu apaulendo ndi antchito, njira yobwezera njaing'ono koma siikutsekedwa kotheratu. Monga momwe kuyendera kwa anthu ambiri kuwonjezereka kwa pritiva, ma compsion, ndi mgwirizano wa boma wa otetezera ufulu wa boma, udzapitirizabe kukonza ufulu ndi kuchiritsa anthu amene akugwira ntchito ndi kutha ntchitoyi. Kusunga malamulo odziŵika bwino, ndi kunena kuti malamulo akugwira ntchito pa nthaŵi yake, ndi kuyendetsa nkhani za lamulo lokhudzana ndi lokhudzana ndi lokhudzana za lamulo.