Table of Contents
Chiyambi
Kuwombana kwa maupandu oŵirikiza ndi chiphunzitso cha chilango cha kaŵiri kuli pamutu pa lamulo lamakono la kuweruza. Malamulo onse aŵiri anapangidwa kupenda mphamvu ya boma ndi kutetezera oimbidwa mlandu ku mitolo yodzifunira kapena yopambanitsa ya lamulo. Komabe amagwira ntchito m'mabwalo osiyanasiyana ndipo kaŵirikaŵiri amafunsa mafunso otokosa a makhoti. Nkhaniyi imapereka kusanthula kosabisa kwa chiphunzitso chilichonse, kufufuza mmene amachitira, ndi kupenda kunkitsa kwa lamulo kumene kumakhalapo pamene zikhulupiriro zambiri ndi zilango zambiri ziri pachiswe. Kuzindikira kukambitsirana kumeneku kuli kofunika kwa otetezera aupandu, oweruza, oweruza, ndi aliyense wokondwerera malire a malamulo a chilango.
Maziko a Chitetezo cha Madzi Opachikidwa Aŵiri
Chiyambi cha Mbiri ndi Maziko a Lamulo
Maupandu aŵiri ali lamulo limene limaletsa boma kuyesa munthu kamodzi kaamba ka mlandu umodzimodziwo pambuyo pa kukhululukidwa kapena chitsimikiziro. Malamulo amakhalidwe abwinowo ali ndi chiyambi chakale, kuwonekera m'lamulo la Roma ndi la m'nyengo zapakati, ndipo adakhazikitsidwa zolimba m'lamulo la anthu onse panthaŵi ya kukhazikitsidwa kwa America. Pansi pa Kukonzanso Komphonya kwa Fifete ku United States, “Palibe munthu amene ayenera kukhala... woyenerera kuikidwa kaŵiri m'chiweruzo chimodzi kuikidwa kuupandu wa moyo kapena chiŵalo.” Mawuwo amagwira ntchito ku malamulowo kupyolera ku Gemendement ya 145.
Zifuno zazikulu za chitetezero cha ngozi ziŵiri ndizo kutetezera anthu ku mavuto a malingaliro, a zandalama, ndi mbiri ya kumangidwa mobwerezabwereza; kusunga kumaliza kwa ziweruzo za upandu; ndi kuletsa boma kugwiritsira ntchito chuma chake chokulira kufooketsa woimbidwa mlandu. Chitetezerocho chikaikidwa pa malo oyenera ndi kulumbira, kapena pamene mboni yoyamba yalumbira kuzengedwa mlandu pa benji.
Kodi N’chiyani Chimawononga Uhule Wofananayo?
Funso lovuta kwambiri pansi pa ngozi ziŵiri ndilo limene limakhala “chilango chimodzi.. Khoti Lapamwamba linapanga mayeso a kulephera mu . . . . . . . United States [1932]: ngati malamulo aŵiri alionse a kufuna umboni wa chenicheni chakuti winayo satero, iwo sali mlandu umodzimodzi. Komabe, ngati mlandu umodzi uli wophatikizidwa pang’ono ndi wina, amalingaliridwa kukhala mlandu wofanana ndi zifuno za ngozi. Mwachitsanzo, wolakwa sangaikidwe mlandu wa zonse ziŵiri zoyamba mbanda ndi wachiŵiri wakupha chifukwa cha kuphana kwachiŵiri chifukwa cha mbali zonse zachiŵiri za kuphana kwa mbanda.
Kuyesa kumeneku kuli ndi cholinga ndipo kumasumika pa mbali za lamulo za maupandu, osati umboni weniweni woperekedwa pa mlandu. Kuyesa kumagwiritsiridwa ntchito ponse paŵiri kutsimikizira ngati mlandu wapambuyo pake umaletsedwa ndi ngozi yoŵirikiza ndi kusankha ngati zilango zambiri kaamba ka khalidwe limodzimodzilo zili zololedwa.
Zochita ndi Zolephera
Upandu wa kaŵiri suli wotheratu. Masinthidwe angapo odziŵika bwino amagwira ntchito:
- Tribuments: Ngati mlandu ulengezedwa ndi chivomerezo cha woimbidwa mlandu kapena chifukwa cha kusonyeza kufunikira (m’chitsanzo, juli yopachikidwa), mlandu umaloledwa.
- Kuzenga mlandu pambuyo pa kufunsira kwachipambano: Mkulu woimbidwa amene apambana apilo motsutsana ndi chitsimikizo angaikidwenso pokhapo ngati maziko a kusintha sanali umboni wokwanira.
- Maulamuliro apadera: Chiphunzitso cha ulamuliro chamitundu iŵiri chimalola ponse paŵiri boma ndi boma kuweruza munthu mmodzimodzi kaamba ka kachitidwe kofanana ngati kuchitako kuswa malamulo onse aŵiri.
- Kuweruza: Upandu waŵiri wokha uphanga wotsatizana. Boma lingapereke chilango chachiŵeniŵeni (m’chitsanzo, kulephera, kubwezera) ngakhale pambuyo pa mlandu waupandu, malinga ngati zilangozo sizili “chiweruzo chachiŵeruzo kapena chiyambukiro monga momwe zingalingaliridwe kukhala mpandu.”
Chiphunzitso cha Chilango Chapaŵiri: Malamulo a Mkhalidwe ndi Kugwiritsira Ntchito
Kupereka Chilango ndi Kulamula
Chiphunzitso cha chilango cha ŵiri ndi mfundo yosiyana koma yogwirizana ndi mfundo yomwe imaletsa chilango chambiri kaamba ka khalidwe limodzi pokhapokha ngati bungwe lokhazikitsa malamulo lalola. Pamene kuli kwakuti ngozi ziŵiri zimasumika pa milandu yotsatizana, chilango cha ŵiri chimasumika pa chilango chenichenicho. Chiphunzitsocho chimazikidwa pa kutsimikizira kwa malamulo a malamulo a kachitidwe koyenera ndipo, m'mayiko ena, m’makonzedwe omvekera bwino monga chigamulo chotsutsana ndi ndalama zopambanitsa [ m'chitetezero cha malamulo a dziko la Eight kapena magnerment.
Kupereka chilango ndi mbali yaikulu: chilango chiyenera kuyenerera upanduwo, ndipo chilango chochuluka pa kachitidwe kolakwa kamodzi sichiyenera kukhala chowonjezera kufikira pa kukhala wosayenerera kwenikweni. Makhoti kaŵirikaŵiri amapereka lamulo la liuma [1] [1] ngati lamulo laupandu lili lomveka bwino, liyenera kufotokozedwa moyanjana ndi woimbidwa mlandu ndi chilango chochuluka.
Kuyesa Malo Opumira ndi Chiphunzitso Chogwirizana
Chimodzimodzi , kuyesa kotchedwa quemburg kogwiritsiridwa ntchito pa ngozi zoŵirikiza kumalamuliranso ngati malamulo ambiri angaperekedwe m'kuzenga kumodzi. Pansi pa Missouri v. Hunter [19983] [I], Khoti Lalikulu linkafuna kuti kuopsa kuwirikiza kaŵiri sikumaletsa chilango ngati nyumba ya malamuloyo ikufuna kuvomereza kuti achite ntchito imodzi. Komabe, pamene cholinga cha malamulo chimakhala chosamveka bwino, khoti limagwiritsira ntchito . [FLT:] Kutsimikizira ngati maupanduwo ali ofanana. Ngati, mawuwo ayenera kuphatikiza, tanthauzo lake lokhalo angalangidwe.
Chiphunzitsochi chimagwira ntchito mosiyana m’mayiko osiyanasiyana. Mayiko ena ali ndi lamulo lakuti milandu ina yaing’ono imaloŵa mu mlandu waukulu (m’chitsanzo, umbava umagwirizanitsidwa ndi kupha munthu mwankhanza ngati kubako ndiko kumachititsa kuti munthu aphedwe). Mayiko ena amalola chilango chochuluka kokha ngati milanduyo yakhala yosiyanadi pa nthawi, malo, kapena cholinga chake.
Alangizo Aakulu Chifukwa cha Khalidwe Lawo
Nkhani za chilango zoŵirikiza zimabuka kaŵirikaŵiri m'milandu yowonjezereka kapena yopitirizabe. Lingalirani za woimbidwa mlandu amene amachita mbala ku banki pogwiritsa ntchito mfuti. Malinga ndi malamulo, iye angaikidwe mlandu wa kuba m’banki, kuba ndi zida, kugwiritsira ntchito mfuti paupandu wachiwawa, ndi kukhala ndi mfuti monga womenya. Funso ndi lakuti zilango zapambali ziri zololedwa. Khoti liyenera kutsutsa zigamulo zonse ndi kupenda ngati lamulolo likufuna kuti aliyense alangidwe mowonjezereka. Kaŵirikaŵiri, malamulo amaphatikizapo zilango zachilango zolola zigamulo zina.
Kucholoŵana kwina kwamakono ndiko kugwiritsira ntchito kukulitsa kozikidwa pa zikhulupiriro zoyambirira kapena kukhalapo kwa chida. Kuwonjezera sikumalingaliridwa kukhala chilango chapadera kaamba ka mlandu umodzimodziwo pansi pa ngozi yoŵirikiza kaŵiri, chifukwa chakuti kumawonjezera chilango cha upandu umodzi mmalo mwa kulanga khalidwe losiyana. Komabe, njira yoyenerera imafunikira kuti kuwonjezerako kusatuluke m’chiweruzo choikidwa mopambanitsa.
Mmene Kuloŵererapo Kwapaŵiri ndi Chilango Chapaŵiri
Kusiyana Komabe Chitetezo Chothandiza
Ziphunzitso ziŵirizo ziri ndi malingaliro osiyana. Kuwopsa kwa kaŵiri kumagwira ntchito pa kalabu ya mlandu, kuzunzanso pambuyo pa ngozi. Chilango cha kaŵiri chimagwira ntchito pampambo wa chiweruzo, kuchepetsa chilango chowonjezera cha khoti m’kuchitika kwa kamodzi. Mosasamala kanthu za ichi, iwo ali ndi cholinga chimodzi: kuletsa boma kugwiritsira ntchito mphamvu yake kutsendereza anthu kupyolera m’mayesero obwerezabwereza kapena ziganizo zopambanitsa.
Kulankhulana kwawo kumawonekera kwambiri pamene woimbidwa mlandu wa mlandu wochuluka kaamba ka kachitidwe kofananako. Ngati zikhulupilirozo ziri zovomerezedwa pansi pa ngozi yoŵirikiza (chifukwa chakuti si mlandu umodzimodzi), khotilo liyenera kutsimikizira kuti zigamulozo siziri chilango cha kaŵiri.
Kupitirira Malire: Pamene Zikhulupiriro Zosiyanasiyana Zichititsa Kulangidwa Kaŵiri
Talingalirani nkhani imene woimbidwa mlandu wa kugwidwa ndi onse aŵiri akuba ndi kukhala ndi mfuti pamene akuchita upandu wachiwawa. Pansi pa sinki ya maupandu , imeneyi ingakhale milandu yosiyana chifukwa chakuti kukhala ndi munthu kumafuna umboni wa kulakwa, umene suli mbali ya kuba. Komabe, nyumba yomanga malamulo ingapereke kapena kusafuna kuwonjezera zigamulo. Ngati lamulolo limanena kuti milandu iyenera kuchitika motsatizana, khoti lidzachirikiza mawu otsatizana. Koma ngati lamulolo likufuna kungokhala chete, khoti liyenera kugwiritsa ntchito [[FLT:]burg [FL:3] ndipo ngati likufuna kuyesa, ngati maupanduwonjezedwawo kapena wina ali wofanana, kuphatikizapo kuweruza kochepera.
Malamulo awiri amaonedwa ngati chilango chimodzi ngati chigamulo chofanana. Koma ngati woimbidwa mlandu walandira zaka 10, chikhoza kukhala chilango chimodzi chokwanira zaka 10; ngati chigamulocho chikutsatira, chigamulo chotsatira chimakhala chogwirizana.
Kufufuza Milandu ndi Kumasulira Chiweruzo
Zosankha zingapo zimene tasankha zimasonyeza kuti:
- [[FLT :0] [FLT .1] . . United States [FLT : 32] ( Woimbidwa mlandu adagulitsa mankhwala osokoneza bongo m'malonda aŵiri. Iye anaimbidwa mlandu wa ziŵerengero ziŵiri za kugulitsa mankhwala ena oletsedwa osati m’phukusi loyambirira ndi ziŵerengero ziŵiri za kugulitsa mankhwala popanda dongosolo lolembedwa. Khoti linakhulupirira kuti maseti aŵiri a ziŵerengero anaphatikizapo milandu yosiyana chifukwa chakuti chigamulo chilichonse chinafuna mbali ina. Chiŵeruzocho chinachirikizidwa, ndipo mlanduwo unatsimikizira mayeso amakono.
- .[FLT] United States v. Dixon[FLT :2] (1993): Khotilo linatsimikiziranso kuti mayeso a zinthu zimodzimodziwo amalamulira ngozi ziŵiri, kupambana “mayendedwe amodzimodziwo” kuchokera ku [[FLT:] Krady v. Corbin .
- Missouri v. Mpulumutsi [[FLT :2] (193): Mkhole anaimbidwa mlandu wa kuba koyamba ndi kuukira kokhala ndi zida zaupandu. Khoti linanena kuti chifukwa chakuti bungwe la boma linafuna kulola chilango chowonjezera pa milandu iŵiri imeneyi, kuopsa koŵirikiza. Mlanduwuwuwu umagogomezera kuti ndi mbali yaikulu ya chilango chobwerezedwa kaŵiri.
Nkhani zimenezi zikusonyeza kuti ngakhale kuti ngozi ziŵiri ndi chilango cha kaŵiri n’zogwirizana, lamulolo limachepetsa kwambiri malamulo oletsa chilango cha milandu yogawana.
Zovuta Kumvetsetsa ndi Zosiyana
Ulamuliro Waumodzi ndi Zilango Zosiyana
Chiphunzitso cha uchifumu wa aŵiri ndi chimodzi cha ziphunzitso zotsutsana kwambiri za kuopsa koŵirikiza. Pansi pake, boma ndi boma la boma zimaonedwa kukhala zolamulira zosiyana, aliyense ali ndi mphamvu ya kulanga kaamba ka kuswa malamulo ake. Chotero, munthu angaikidwe m'khoti la boma kaamba ka kuswa ufulu wa anthu pambuyo pa kumasulidwa m'bwalo lamilandu la boma kaamba ka kuukira kofananako. Otsutsa zimenezi amatsutsa mzimu wa ngozi yoŵirikiza kaŵiri ndi kulola maboma kutsendereza zitetezero. Khoti Lapamwamba lachirikiza mobwerezabwereza chiphunzitsocho, posachedwapa kwambiri mu [[FLT: 0]. United States [FLD:]
Ziphunzitso zimenezi zimagwiranso ntchito m’mayiko ena omwe ndi mayiko osiyanasiyana.
Kupatsidwa Ufulu wa Anthu a M’dzikomo ndi Kuimbidwa Mlandu
Maupandu aŵiri samaletsa chilango chachiŵeniŵeni, ngakhale pamene aikidwa pambuyo pa kuzengedwa mlandu kwa pulogalamu imodzimodzi. Kusiyana kwakukulu kuli ngati chilango chachiŵeniŵeni chiri cha “upandu” m'chilengedwe. Makhoti amagwiritsira ntchito mayeso a mbali zambiri kuti asankhe: kaya chiŵeruzocho chimaphatikizapo kuvomereza kupunduka kapena kuletsa, kaya ngati kuwona kuti kwakhala chilango cha m'mbiri, kaya chimafunikira kupezedwa kwa malo ogona, ndi kaya chifuno chake chiri chilango kapena kuletsa. Mwachitsanzo, kulandiridwa kwa chuma cha anthu kumalingaliridwa kukhala kosalakwa, koma chivulazo m'chimo chachiŵeniŵeni chingachititse kuwopsa koŵirikiza ngati iwo afuna kulanga osati kubwezera.
Khoti Lapamwamba linalankhula zimenezi mu sudson v. United States (1997]), poona kuti chilango cha boma choperekedwa ndi Ofesi ya Kampani ya Indalama sichinakhale chilango cha zigamulo za ngozi zoŵirikiza kaŵiri, ngakhale kuti khalidwe lochititsa kaso linatsogoleranso ku milandu yaupandu. Khotilo linagogomezera kuti chilango cha anthu chinali choyenera kuperekedwa m’chilengedwe, cholinga chake chinali kutetezera umphumphu wa dongosolo la kubanki.
Kuthetsa Mavuto ndi Kukulitsa Mlandu
Chitonzo cha apandu n’chapadera. Khoti lingalange munthu chifukwa cha kunyoza lamulo la khoti, ngakhale ngati khalidwe lomwelo ndilo mlandu. Mfundo ndi yakuti kuzemba mlandu kumateteza ulamuliro wa khoti, kudera nkhaŵa kwapadera ndi lamulo la upandu wauchigawenga. Komabe, oimbidwa mlandu angaikidwe kundende chifukwa cha kunyozedwa ndi mlandu wopalamula mlandu womwewo, malinga ngati zigamulozo zitumikira zifuno zosiyana ndi lamulo la khotilo, ndipo winayo kukakamiza kuswa lamulo la mlandu. Kuthekera kumeneku sikumaswa kuŵirikiza chifukwa chakuti kunyozedwa kumalingaliridwa kukhala kopatulidwa ndi cholinga chosiyana.
Kukweza malamulo, monga ngati malamulo ozoloŵereka kapena kukweza mfuti, kukananso zitsutso zoŵirikiza. Makhoti kaŵirikaŵiri amaona kuwonjezerako monga kuwongolera chilango chachikulu cha upandu, osati monga chilango chapadera. Siigwira ntchito kuyesa kuwonjezera. Komabe, ngati kuwonjezerako kumazikidwa pa mfundo imene imakhala yopanga upandu (mzere, kugwiritsira ntchito mfuti), kukhoza kuchitidwa ngati mfundo imodzimodziyo yagwiritsiridwa ntchito kuchirikiza chikhulupiriro chosiyana. [FLT:] Kuŵerengera kochepa, ndi kuletsa kugwiritsa ntchito chigamulo chosiyana cha kuchirikiza.
Kuyerekezera Malingaliro
Kupereka Chilango Kaŵiri ndi Kupereka Chilango Pazinenezo Zina Zofala
Pamene kuli kwakuti lamulo la America limawona ngozi ziŵiri ndi chilango chapaŵiri kukhala chogwirizana koma chosiyana, maiko ena ofala amalingalira nkhanizo mosiyana.
Kingdom: England ndi Wales ali ndi chitetezero cha kuopsa koŵirikiza kuŵiri pa Chilamulo cha Chiweruzo 2003, ndi kutsata zolakwa zazikulu kumene umboni watsopano ndi wokakamiza ukuonekera. Lingaliro la chilango chawiri lalembedwa ndi lamulo la [[FLT:] kuchuluka kwa [FLT:] kugamula: ganizo lonse liyenera kukhala lolungama ndi lolingana, ndi makhoti akupeŵa kupangitsa kukhala lowopsa kwambiri pamene milandu yambiri ibuka. Mosiyana ndi U.S., U.K. ili ndi njira yogwirizana kwambiri imene imagwirizanitsa kulakwa ndi kukambitsirana koŵirikiza kaŵiri ndi kuyang'ana m’kanthu pa malingaliro a chilungamo.
Canada : Tchata cha ku Canada cha Ufulu ndi chigamulo chakupereka m'chigawo 11 (h) kuti munthu sangayenererenso mlandu umene wawamasula kapena kuwaimba mlandu. Khoti Lapamwamba la Canada lamasulira mfundo imeneyi, kuletsa milandu yambiriyi, kuiika mlandu womwewo ngati “wosiyana ndi mlandu wapapitapo. Canada alinso ndi lamulo lotsutsa zikhulupiriro zambiri za cholakwa chomwecho, chodziŵika bwino monga [[FLT:] Kaianaglerole [[[FL:3]] . Ngati munthu amayesedwa chifukwa cha milandu yambiri yochokera ku kachitidwe kamodzi, ziganizo zonse zikuletsedwa popanda lamulo lililonse. Chilangochi chiwongo chimodzi chosiyana. Chilangochi chiwonetserochi chimodzimodzicho chika cha U.
Australia: Chitetezero cha ngozi ziŵiri cha Australia chimapezedwa m'lamulo ndi lamulo lofala, ndi maboma ena akulola kuzenga milandu yaikulu ndi umboni watsopano. Khoti Lalikulu la Australia lagamula kuti ngakhale ngati kachitidwe kamodzi kali kaŵiri, woimbidwa mlandu sakhoza kulangidwa kaŵiri chifukwa cha khalidwe lomwelo kusiyapo ngati lamulo linafuna. Limeneli ndilo loyenerera kwa thanburger kuyandikira, koma makhoti a ku Australia amasumika maganizo kwambiri pa milandu yoona ya nex neus kuposa pa mbali zalamulo.
Zitsanzo zoyerekezera zimenezi zikusonyeza kuti ngakhale kuti mfundo za malamulo n’zofala padziko lonse, malamulo amasiyana kwambiri.
Kumaliza
Kugwirizana pakati pa ngozi ziŵiri ndi chiphunzitso cha chilango chaŵiri kumapanga nyumba yosuliza yotetezera oimbidwa mlandu kwa boma ochenjeredwa. Kuwopsa kwaŵiri kumagwira ntchito monga chitetezero ku milandu yobwerezabwereza, pamene chiphunzitso cha chilango chapaŵiri chimatsimikizira kuti ngakhale m'kuzenga umodzi, boma silingapereke zilango zowonjezereka kuposa zimene zili zolungamitsidwa kapena zofunidwa. Ngakhale kuti ziphunzitso ziŵirizo zili ndi makolo onse aŵiri ndipo kaŵirikaŵiri zimadalira pa kuyesa kofanana kwalamulo sicker mbali zoyesera [1]
Makhoti ayenera kuyang'anira modabwitsa zolinga za malamulo, milandu yotsatizana, kukweza, ndi ulamuliro waŵiri kutsimikizira kuti woimbidwa mlandu aliyense alandira chiganizo choyenera ndi cholinganiza. Oyang’anira masinthidwe ameneŵa angapange zifukwa zabwino zotsutsa chilango chochuluka. Pamene malamulo aupandu akupitirizabe kufutukula ndi milandu yotsatizana, kufunika kwa kugwiritsira ntchito bwino ndi kosasintha kwa ziphunzitso zimenezi kumakula.
Kuti muŵerenge zambiri, fufuzani [[FLT: 0] Chidutswa cha Masamu cha Malamulo pa Cornell Legal Information Institute , malemba a sickburger v. United States (1932) , ndi kusanthula kwa [FLT:] Missouri v. Hunter [1903]. .