Nyengo Yapapitapo ya Kusintha: United States monga Mfumu

Zaka za zana la 20, Bill of Rights analingaliridwa kukhala mpambo wa ziletso pa boma lachikole lokha. Malamulo oyambirira, monga momwe analembedwera mu 1787, analibe lamulo la ufulu, ndipo zigamulo zovomerezedwa mu 1791 zinaikidwa mwachindunji pa Msonkhano: “Konsoli siidzapanga lamulo lililonse ... . (Ppenigalamu yoyamba). Boma linakhalabe lomasuka kukhazikitsa zipembedzo zawo, kutsendereza, kuyang’anira, ndi kukana kuweruza kwaupandu — zonsezo popanda kuyendetsa mlandu wa U. Malamulowa anasonyeza kuti boma la boma loyambirira la boma, lomwe lili ndi mphamvu za dziko lonse la boma linagaŵikana ulamuliro wochepa, kugawana ulamuliro wake.

Posinthira pake pa kupangidwa kwa Lamulo la 14 ndi 1868. Ilo linalengeza kuti: “Palibe Boma limene lidzalanda munthu aliyense moyo, ufulu, kapena katundu, popanda dongosolo la lamulo. Kwa zaka makumi ambiri, Khoti Lalikulu linatsutsa lingaliro lakuti mawuwa “akhoza kusiyanitsa” makonzedwe odziŵika kuchokera ku Bill of Rights potsutsana ndi maboma. M'malamulo Sadzachotsamo munthu aliyense, kapena katundu, popanda lamulo. [Malamulo] (1873]), khoti linamasulira mwachidule ufulu kapena Immaclaus, kuchotsamo bwino lomwelo ngati galimoto. Kuyendetsa kwa Claus kumachoka monga kumanga nyumba yotchuka yokhayo koma osati kuimbidwa ndi theka la khoti lina.

Kubadwa kwa Kusankha: [[FLT: 0] Gitrow v. New York (1925)

Chiphunzitso chamakono cha kusankhidwa kwa [FLT: 1] kunali ndi chiyambi chake kuchiyambi kwa zaka za zana la 20, pamene Bwalo Lapamwamba linayamba kupenda ngati ufulu waukulu wondandalikidwa mu Bill of Rights unalinso “kutetezeredwa ndi Kusintha kwa Zachikale kwa 14. [Kusintha kwa za Ufulu za Ufulu za Ufulu wa Anthu]. Mlandu wotayidwa unali [[FLT:] Gitlow v. New York [[FL:3]], 268 U. 652 [1925]). Benjamin Gitlow, wokonda za makhalidwe, anaimbidwa mlandu pansi pa malamulo a New York chifukwa chofalitsa kugwetsedwa kwa boma. Khoti inachirikiza kutsimikizira kwake kuti kulankhulako kwabwino, koma kunasonyeza kuti “ubwino, ndi kutchuka kwa ufulu pakati pa ufulu wa anthu... ndi kutetezeredwa ndi kupangidwa ndi kuthambitsidwa kwa maiko otetezeredwa ndi ku United States.

Mawu amenewo anali odziŵikitsidwa dictum (mawu onenedwa podutsa), koma anayala maziko a kusintha m'lamulo lachimereka. Kwanthaŵi yoyamba, khoti linavomereza kuti ufulu wachindunji kuchokera ku Computer Yoyamba yogwiritsidwa ntchito ku maboma. Komabe khoti silinagwiritsire ntchito Bill of Rights yonse panthaŵi imodzi. Mmalomwake, linachita zinthu motsatira, kulondola — chifukwa chake mawu akuti “kusankha gulu la ufulu.

N’chifukwa Chiyani “Ndikusankha ”?

Woweruza John Marshall Harlan (mkulu) adachirikiza kuphatikiza kotheratu ku maBooma kapena ku Immunities Claus, koma lingaliro lake silinalamulire anthu ambiri. Pambuyo pake, Woweruza Hugo Black anachirikiza kuphatikizidwa konseko kupyolera mwa Century Proces Claus , akutsutsa kuti Kusintha kwa khumi ndi zinayi kunayenera kugwiritsira ntchito Bill of Rights ku maboma. Khoti linakana malowo, kusankha njira yogwirizana kwambiri imene inalola kuti isankhe ndi kusankha ufulu umene unali “wofunika kwambiri pa chiweruzo cha ku America. Monga chotulukapo, ufulu wina — monga Second Reformation Reformation kusungitsa ndi kunyamula zida — silinaloŵetsedwa kufikira 2010, pamene ena, mofanana ndi Grand Claus of the Foundsion, yosagwirizana ndi tsiku lino.

Mfundo Zosaiwalika: Kuchokera pa Malamulo Owonjezera Achinayi Kufika pa Malamulo Achisanu ndi Chimodzi

Pambuyo pa Gitlow, Bwalo Lamilandu lifutukula pang'onopang'kuwonjezera ndandanda ya zoyenera zophatikizidwa, makamaka mkati mwa nyengo ya Warren Court (1953-1969). Pansipa pali milandu yosintha zinthu imene inasintha njira za upandu wa boma ndi ufulu wa anthu.

Mapp v. Ohio [1] (1961): Lamulo la Kuchotsa Linagwiritsidwa Ntchito ku United States

Mu kutetezera ku kufunafuna kosalingalirika ndi kugwidwa ndi . Ohio , 367 U.S.63 (1961), Bwalo lamilandu linavomereza kuti Firdemist [[FLT:] Falmest] Falmenti [ kutetezera ku kufunafuna kosayenera ndi kugwidwa ndi kugwidwa — ndi lamulo loletsa — ndipo lamulo lopatulalo (kulephera kugwiritsiridwa ntchito mosemphana ndi lamulo loletsa kulakwa) — limagwira ntchito m'makhoti. M'AP] M'POSAK] [FLT: 5], akunena kuti athane umboni wosaloledwa ngati malamulo awo alola. Dollep chifukwa cha kudalira zinthu zonyansa zopezedwa m'mafufuza kwapolisi. Khoti lalikulu, lomwelo limasintha lamulo la chigamu chigamu cha chigamu cha chigamu cha chigamulo, chikalata chogwirizana ndi chikalata chogwirizana ndi chikalata chogwirizana ndi chikalata chokhudza chikalata chokhudza mfundo cha boma cha .

Gideon v. Wainwright [1] (1963): Kuyenera ku Uphungu

Clarence Earl Gideon, msilikali wa ku Florida waumphaŵi, anapempha Bwalo Lapamwamba ndi mawu achidule olembedwa kuti iye anakanidwa . . . . . . . . khotilo linavomereza kuti kuyenera kwa kupereka uphungu m’milandu yaupandu, kuphatikizapo Demetriyoni ndi kuphatikizapo 144. Tsopano likufunika kupereka loya wa mlandu uliwonse woyang'anizana ndi mlandu waupandu amene sangathe kulipira mmodzi. Mlandulo imeneyi inadzutsa njira zotetezera dziko lonse ndi kuyang'anira mlandu waupandu.

Miranda v. Arizona (1966): Kuyenera kwa kukhala chete

Mwinamwake chochititsa chotchuka kwambiri, Manda v. Arizona [FLT :1], 384 U.S. 436 (1966), anagwiritsira ntchito [[FLT:] Fithmenced Conformation [ mwaŵi wolimbana ndi kudzipanikiza kwa munthu mwini kukhazikitsa mayeso. Khoti linafuna apolisi kudziŵitsa ufulu wawo (machenjezo odziŵika bwino a [Manda]) asanafunse. Chigamulo chinakhala chotsutsana kwambiri panthaŵiyo, chosulizidwa chifukwa cha kusungidwa kwa lamulo lamanja. Komabe chakhala chochirikizidwa kwambiri m'chikhalidwe cha ku America kwakuti machenjezo ali m’mafilimu ndi wailesi yakanema. [FLD] [FF:]

Malamulo Owonjezereka a Bwalo lamilandu la Warren

  • [[FLT: 0] Kusintha koyambirira: Kulankhula ([FLT :]] , sindikiza (]] , sindikiza ( Nearb v. Minnesota[[FL:]] 1931], msonkhano ([FLT:]]]] Deme v. Oregon[], 1937]), kugwiritsa ntchito kwaulerego wa chipembedzo ([FLT:]. Connet . Connecticut v[F:], 1940, kukhazikitsa chipembedzo ([FL:]]
  • [[FLT: 0] Isimende ya Chingelezi: kuzenga mlandu kwa anthu mofulumira ndi koonekera ( Klopefer v. North Carolina, 1967]), komiti yopanda tsankho ([[FLT:] DUN] v. Louisiana, 1968], kutsutsana kwa mboni ([ Poctive v. Texas , 1965), kachitidwe kokakamiza ([FLT.[FLT]]
  • [[MLT: 0] Kusinthasintha kwa mlingo: Wankhanza ndi chilango chachilendo ( Robinson v. California, 1962]).

Kusankha Koyenera Kuphatikiza Mapangano: Kutsutsana

Woweruza Hugo Black mosasintha ananena kuti Access ya 14th Demendment’s Access Claus adafuna kuphatikiza Bill ya Ufulu Wachibadwidwe wonse kutsutsana ndi maboma — ngakhalenso, ngakhale pang'ono. Anakhulupirira kuti onsewo adzapeŵa kuvomereza kwa “chilungamo cha maziko”. [Kuyesa [FLT:] Dincanvv v. Louisiana (1968), Black analemba m'Konson: “Ndikatsatira chinenero chofeŵeka cha Kukonzanso ndi kuphatikiza Bill ya ufulu wa Khoti ku 114 Demetionstion ."

Ambiri, motsogozedwa ndi Jasitisi Byron White, mmalo mwake anapitirizabe njira yosankha, kupenda kufunika kwa kumanja kulikonse. Nkhaniyo inadzutsa funso lakuya la filosofi: Kodi Khoti liyenera kulola ufulu, kapena kodi liyenera kukakamiza chilolezo chimodzi cha dziko lonse? Kusankhako kunapambana tsikulo, koma kutsutsa kwa Judge Black kwakhala kosonkhezera. Akatswiri ena amatsutsa kuti kuphatikizako kosankhako kwakhala kotchuka kotchedwa hoc, ngakhale kuti kunali “kupanga“ chikhoterero chachi ” cha kuphatikiza ndi kusakhala ndi ufulu. Mwachitsanzo, Second Conflicy Reformation inakhala yosaphatikizidwa kuyambira 1791 mpaka [FLD [F:] [Donald:]. [FLD] . Chicago: 0], ngakhale kuti “kusiyanitsa bwino ndi kusiyanitsa kwachikulu.

Ufulu Wosalowa M’gulu la Anthu Oona

Si ufulu uliwonse mu Boma la Ufulu Waukulu wagwiritsiridwa ntchito ku maboma. Chofunika kwambiri ndicho [[FLT: 0] Firmence’s Grand Jury Classia [[FLT 1:1], imene imafunikira makhoti a boma kaamba ka milandu yaikulu yoyambitsidwa ndi mlandu waukulu wa ajuli. Khoti Lapamwamba losungidwa mu [[FLT:] [FLD] [FF:] [FLT]] [FLT]. [FLT] [FF:] [3] [1] [184] [184] [1] mu [1] [MFFF:M] [5] [mu . . . [1]

Zogwiritsa Ntchito Zamakono ndi Mafunso Osathetsedwa

Kusankha kumathandiza kuti m’zaka za zana la 21, kaŵirikaŵiri m’nkhani za maloto opanga maulamulo mukhale chitetezo cha ufulu wa anthu.

Kudzipatula ndi Ufulu Wobala Ana

Kuyenera kwa kukhala chinsinsi — ngakhale kuti sikunatchulidwe mwachindunji mu Bill of Rights — kwadziŵika kukhala “chikondwerero cha kutetezeredwa ndi Chisinthiko cha 145. Gerold v. Connecticut (65]), Khoti linagonjetsa chiletso cha boma pa kuletsa kuletsa kulera, kuletsa kubereka. Ngakhale kuti kuchotsa chigamulo cha “malamulo a“ [1] kuchokera ku ufulu wochuluka, kuphatikizapo Woyamba, Wachitatu, Wachinayi, ndi Lachisanu. Pambuyo pake, [[FLT:] v. [[FLT] [FFLT] [F: 3] [3] [zi] Zivuto], zopinga zopanda kulakwa za kulakwa kwa kumanja, koma kulephera kwa kufalikira kwa kulakwa kwa kulakwa kwamphamvu.

Mpando wachiŵiri wa Mpando wa Malamulo Atatha [[ML:0]

Kuphatikizidwa kwa Lamulo Lachiŵiri mu McDonald v. Chicago [1] (20FLT:1) adakhala ndi ziyambukiro zofikira kutali. Khoti linavomereza kuti kuyenera kwa kusunga ndi kunyamula zida zankhondo zaumwini nkofunika ndipo limagwira ntchito ku boma ndi maboma a komweko. Kuyambira pamenepo, makhoti aang'ono amenyana ndi malamulo a boma oletsa mfuti — monga kutsekereza zida zankhondo, malire a magazini, ndi kubisa ziletso za lamulo la mbiri yakale. Khoti Lapamwamba la 20222 mu [FL:2] New York State Rifle & Pistol Association v. Brucle . Brupt .

Kudziimira pa Wekha pa Makompyuta ndi Kusintha kwa Kachinayi

Luso lamakono limayambitsa mafunso atsopano a Chisinthiko chachinayi. Kampani ya Malamulo ku . United States (2017]), Khoti Lalikulu linavomereza kuti boma limafunikira chilolezo cha kutsegula malo a foni a m'mbiri. Ngakhale kuti mabodzawo anachitidwa ndi gulu lachitatu (kampani ya foni). Chigamulocho chinadalira pa Madeti a Fourter monga momwe analoŵetsedwa mu Mapp , koma chinagwiritsa ntchito mfundo zatsopano za . Mofananamo, makhoti tsopano akuyang'anizana ndi nkhani zofanana ndi za apolisi oŵerenga mapepala a galimoto, drones, ndi zikalata zofotokoza mfundo za boma. Chosankha chitsimikizonjezo chimene chimalephera kuteteza mwa kugwiritsa ntchito kopeka ndi kulongosola “kugwiritsa ntchito kwamakono kwa pulogalamu; mofanana ndi kulongosola kwa malamulo a .

Ufulu wa Kusintha Zinthu ndi Lamulo Loyamba

Pamene kuli kwakuti si kuyenera konse kogwirizana ndi kuvota kumene kumaikidwa pansi pa chiwongolero chimodzi, Chitetezero choyamba cha kulankhula kwa ndale zadziko ndi kugwirizana, chophatikizidwa mwa nkhani zonga Denge v. Oregon [1937], chagwiritsiridwa ntchito kuswa malamulo a boma amene amaletsa kulowa kapena ndalama za ndawala. Mwachitsanzo, m'malamulo [[FLT:]] mu [FLT] United. FFEC[FLT] [FLT] [0] (20: 0) — mlandu wa boma — Coumba Coyamba kuchotsa malamulo oletsedwa pa zopimira zandale zaumwini. Chigamulocho chimagwiranso ntchito pa malamulo a zandale. Chosankhacho chimayenderapo kulongosola malamulo ogwirizana ndi kukambitsirana ndi kukambitsirana kwake koyenera. [FT.FT.]

Kulephera kwa Kusankha

Mosasamala kanthu za chipambano chake, kuphatikizapo kwake kosankha kwakhala ndi chisulizo. Ena amatsutsa kuti njira ya kalingaliridwe kake yatsogolera ku chinjirizo losasintha: chifukwa chake kuyenera kwa mlandu wa oweruza m'nkhani zachiŵeniŵeni (Mpambo wachisanu) sikunaloŵetsedwa kotheratu, pamene kuli kwakuti kuyenera kwa kupereka uphungu (Mpambo wachisanu ndi chiŵiri)? Kudalira kwa Khotilo pa “chilungamo chachindunji chachikulu” kwaimbidwa kuti liikidwe kukhala logonjera — kusonyeza miyezo ya chilungamo mmalo mwa tanthauzo lalamulo lalamulo. Oyambirira monga Clarence Thomas Thomas amachirikiza kugwirizanitsa ndi [FL:0] Priges kapena Immaunity Claus Christmas , mmalo mwake angapereke ufulu wosiyana (kuphatikizaponso matanthauzo a ufulu ndi kunyamula zida za kumanja ndi kunyamula zida zankhondo za kumanja).

Chikalata china chotchedwa critique sichingalolenso kufufuza kosaloledwa ndi kugwiritsa ntchito lamulo la boma koma kuswa malamulo a Fource. Ochirikiza a boma atsutsa kuti kusintha kwa nyengo ya kuyambirira kwa kugwirizanitsa zinthu ndi kuchepetsa mphamvu ya maboma kulola maboma kuyesa maulamuliro osiyanasiyana alamulo. Komabe, maulamulirowo sangalolenso kufufuza kosaloledwa ndi lamulo kumene kuyenera kuloledwa ndi boma koma kuswa malamulo a boma. Ochirikiza mfundo za boma amatsutsa kuti kusintha kwa nyengo ya kuyambika kwa maulamuliro kuyerekeza ndi makhalidwe akwawo. Komabe, kutsutsanako — kochitidwa mwamphamvu ndi Bwalo la Warren — ndiko kuti ufulu waukulu suyenera kugonjera ku zinthu zazikulu za m'dziko; ndi kuwona kuti sikulidi kulakwa ngati boma lingachotse.

Kumaliza: Choloŵa Chomadza

Chisankho chasintha kwambiri chigamulo cha Amereka ndi chitetezo cha ufulu wa munthu mmodzi. Mwakugwiritsira ntchito Bull of Rights ku maboma, Khoti Lapamwamba lapanga malo apamwamba adziko aufulu ofanana — malo apamwamba amene akupitiriza kubuka pamene milandu ndi maluso amakono amabuka. Komabe njirayi sinathe. Khoti silinasankhepo kaya [[FF: 0]] Chitetezo cha Claus [[F] [F:]] [F4] [I] ] chimaphatikizapo kutha kwa zaka zisanu ndi zitatu zoyambira, (sikufunikira kutetezera kofanana, popeza kuti chitetezero chofananacho chimagwiritsidwa ntchito kulongosola), koma malire adakalibe: Kodi kukhazikitsa kwachiŵiri kutetezera kuyenera kunyamula mfuti mu? MF]: Madementi a Hendppermerting monga momwe amatetezeranso? Mapepala Oyambirira amathandiza kutetezera kumbuyo kwa mapepala a pepala onse, kuwonjezera kuwonjezera kumanga ku kuimbidwa kwa ku kuwonjezera kwa kuwonjezera kwa kuwonjezera, FFF: "F]

Chiphunzitsocho nchigwirizano ndi kusinthika kwa Konsichushoni. Mmalo mwa kukhazikitsa mpambo wosasintha wa ziletso za boma mu 1868, okonza za Demendment ya 14th Amendment anapanga “mchitidwe wapanthaŵi yake” chinenero chimene Khoti lagwiritsira ntchito kupumira moyo m'Malamulo a Ufulu Wachibadwidwe. Pamene kusintha kwa chitaganya, kuphatikiza kwa kusankha kumatsimikizira kuti ufulu wa kulankhula, chipembedzo, nyuzipepala, msonkhano, kachitidwe ka upandu, ndi chinsinsi zikupitirizabe kusungidwa motsutsana ndi mlingo uliwonse wa boma. Ndicho chifukwa chake chiphunzitsocho chimapitirizabe kuumba ufulu wamakono wa anthu — ndipo chifukwa chake chidzakhalabe mbali yofunika ya malamulo a American malamulo a mbadwo akudza.

Kuti muŵerenge mowonjezereka, onani [[FLT: 0] Project on Incorpoisation Doctrine ndi [[FLT:] Conrenational Research Service pa Demendment ya 1450 Demendment Aclaus Claus [1].