Chiyambi: Maziko a Khalidwe Lolungama

Malamulo a ku America amayendera pulogalamu yofanana ndi malamulo a boma. Pamalamulo a lamulo, lonjezo lakuti palibe munthu amene adzamanidwa moyo, ufulu, kapena katundu wopanda dongosolo loyenera ndi lolongosoka. Kugwiritsidwa ntchito pa Malamulo a Finu ndi 14th Amendments, lamulo limeneli limateteza kuti aliyense alandire machitidwe ofanana pa lamulo. Pazochitika zaupandu, njira yoyenerera ndiyo njira imene imasintha mphamvu yaikulu ya boma kukhala yolinganizidwa, yoikizira mlandu. Imafuna kuti malamulo azigwiritsidwa ntchito mosasintha, kuti oimbidwa mlandu aperekedwe mpata woyenerera wodzitetezera okha, ndi kuti zotsatira zake zikhale zozikidwa pa umboni osati mofuna kumveka. Popanda dongosolo lachilungamo likhoza kuchotsa chida cha kupondereza; ndi lingachititse dongosololo kuti lipereke chilungamo chimene chili choyenera ndi chodalirika.

Mmene Zinthu Zinayambira

Lingaliro la njira yoyenerera limatsatira chiyambi chake ku Magna Carta 39 ya Magna Carta (1215), yomwe inalengeza kuti palibe munthu waufulu amene angakhoze kumangidwa kapena kulandidwa ufulu kusiyapo “kuweruza kololedwa kwa ausinkhu wake kapena lamulo la dziko. Chitsimikiziro chimenechi choyambirira chinayambika kupyolera mwa lamulo lachizungu wamba, kusonkhezera malamulo a boma ndi zikalata za maziko a United States. Mpambo wa Findth Amendment, wovomerezedwa mu 1791, woletsa boma kulanda munthu aliyense wa “moyo, ufulu, kapena chuma, popanda njira yoyenerera ya lamulo. Pambuyo pa Nkhondo yachiŵeniŵeni, Demezo la 1450 linafututsira chitetezo chimenechi ku machitidwe a boma, kukhazikitsa njira yoyenerera monga mu muyezo wa dziko lonse.

Nkhani zolembedwa pa malo osungiramo zinthu monga Hurtado v. California[FLT :1] (1884) ndi [FLT:] Trining v. New Jersey (1908]) pang'onopang'ono inaumba chiphunzitsocho, koma chinali chapakati pa zaka za zana la 20 zimene zinaona maluwa ake onse. Khoti la Warren Court’s mu [FLT:] Gideon v. Wainright [[FLT:] (1963]) kuyang'anira anthu kuti ayambe kuyang'anira kuyenera kwawo kwa upandu. — Kutsimikizira kuyenera kwa anthu aupandu kwa kuyang'anirana ndi [FLD] V. [FLY]

Cornell Law School’s Legal Information Institute imapereka kusanthula kokwanira kwa chisinthiko cha m'mbiri ndi kakonzedwe ka ziphunzitso zamakono za kachitidwe koyenera.

Mmene Chilungamo Chimachitikira

Kuyenera kwa mwambo kumalamulira maethigons mwa amene boma liyenera kuchitapo kanthu pamene lifuna kuletsa ufulu wa munthu. M'maupandu, zimenezi zimatembenuzira ku mpambo wa masitepe ofunikira olinganizidwa kutsimikizira chilungamo, kuonekera, ndi kulondola.

Dziŵani ndi Mwaŵi Womvedwa

Pamaziko ake, njira yoyenerera imafunikira kuti woimbidwa mlandu alandire chidziŵitso chokwanira cha milanduyo ndi mwaŵi weniweni wa kupikisana nawo. Chenjezo liyenera kukhala lolunjika mokwanira kulola kukonzekera chitetezo, ndipo kuweruzako kuyenera kukhala kwatanthauzo — osati mwambo wamba. Khoti Lapamwamba linalimbitsa zimenezi mu Mullane v. Central Hanover Bank & Trust. [FLD:] [1950], kunyamula chidziŵitsocho kuyenera “kuŵerengedwa moyenerera, pansi pa mikhalidwe yonse, kukhazikitsa magulu okondwerera okondwerera ntchito.

Kuyenera kwa Uphungu

Chigamulo chapadera mu [FT:0] Gideon v. Wainwright chinatsimikizira kuti kuyenera kwa Sikisi Amendment kwa kupereka uphungu kumagwira ntchito ku boma milandu kupyolera mwa Programme ya 144. Zimenezi zikutanthauza kuti woimbidwa mlandu aliyense woyang'anizana ndi chilango cha ndende ali ndi ufulu kwa loya, ndipo ngati sangathe kugula chimodzi, boma liyenera kupereka chimodzi. Kuyenera kumalekezera ku kuzengedwa mlandu kwa mlandu, kuphatikizapo kuweruza ndi kuchonderera.

Ufulu Wolimbana ndi Mboni Ndiponso Umboni Wake

Chikalata cha Bwanamkubwa cha Pandulo ya Sixte Amendment chimapereka kwa oimbidwa mlandu ufulu wa kutsutsa iwo. Ichi sichiri kokha chida champhamvu chosonyezera kukondera, kusinthasintha, kapena kunama. Kuvomereza chimenechi kuli kuyenera kwa kupereka umboni wa munthu, womwe umaphatikizapo kuitanira mboni, kutsegula zikalata, ndi kupereka umboni ngati woimbidwa mlanduyo wasankha. Ufulu umenewu unalimbitsidwa mu Crawford v. Washington . 04], zimene zinachepetsa kugwiritsiridwa ntchito kwa umboni wa kupyola kwa chigawo “kuimira " pokhapo ngati mawu ozemba mlanduwo apezeka kaamba ka mtanda wa mtanda.

Kuyenera Kupatsidwa Udindo Wopanda Tsankho ndi Mlandu

Pakachitika zimenezi, anzako amafunika kuti asankhe okha kusatenga mbali. Oweruza ayenera kuyankha ngati ali ndi maganizo olakwika kapena chifukwa cha ndalama. Mlandu wa Apandu, pepala la Sixmend Amendment limatsimikizira kuti anzawo apereke juli, kuchokera ku mbali yotsatizana ya chigawo cha chigawo, ndipo ajuli ayenera kulangizidwa kuti asakhale ndi mlandu ndiponso kuti ali ndi umboni wosatsutsika.

Kuyenera Kungokhala Chete ndi Kutetezeredwa ku Kudzivulaza

Mpando wachisanu wa Kusintha zinthu ndi woletsa kudzitsutsa ndi wotetezera wamkulu. Mainda [1] Machenjezo — kuyenera kukhala chete, chenjezo lakuti chilichonse chimene chanenedwa chingagwiritsiridwe ntchito m’khoti, kuyenera kwa loya, ndi ufulu wa kukhala ndi woimira boma — tsopano ali oyenera kufunsidwa mwalamulo. Zimenezi zimatsimikizira kuti kuulula ndiko kodzifunira ndi kuti oimba mlanduwo akudziŵa za chitetezo chawo chalamulo asananene lamulo.

Njira Yoyenerera: Chomwe Chiri Cholungama

Pamene kuli kwakuti ntchito yopanga imakhudza njira, njira yofunikira yosanthula yotsimikizira ya lamulo lenilenilo. Imafunsa ngati lamulo liri lolungama kwenikweni ndi ngati limaswa zoyenera zozikidwa kwambiri m'mbiri ya Amereka kwakuti boma silingaitsegule popanda kulungamitsa kokakamiza.

Ufulu Waukulu Uzidziŵika Pansi pa Njira Yosadziŵika Bwino

Khoti Lalikulu lapeza ufulu waukulu wochuluka wotetezeredwa ndi njira yoyenerera, kuphatikizapo:

  • Ufulu wa kukwatira
  • Ufulu wa kukhala ndi ana ndi kuwalera mmene makolo amafunira
  • Ufulu wa kukhala wokhulupirika m’thupi ndi kukana chithandizo chamankhwala
  • Ufulu wa kukhala pawekha, kuphatikizapo kuyenera kwa kugwiritsira ntchito njira zoletsera kutenga mimba ndi kuchotsa mimba (miyeso yoikidwa ndi malamulo achiweruzo)
  • Ufulu wa kuyenda momasuka mu United States

Pamilandu, njira yoikizira yokakamiza zimene boma lingapangitse. Mwachitsanzo, malamulo amene amayesa kuphwanya malo wamba — monga ngati kumwerekera ndi mankhwala osokoneza bongo — awonongedwa monga kuswa madeti a Eight ndi 14th Amendments. Robinson . California . (1962), Khoti linakhulupirira kuti lamulo lopanga kumwerekera ndi anamgoneka linali lopanda lamulo chifukwa chakuti linalanga mkhalidwe mmalo mwa kuchitapo kanthu.

Kuchepa kwa Njira Yokwanira Yochitira Zinthu

Makhoti afikira njira yoyenerera yapadera ndi kuchenjera, akuzindikira kuti oweruza osasankhidwa sayenera kupeputsa zosankha zachiŵiri za malamulo. Muyezo wopendera malamulo amene amayambukira ufulu wachinsinsi ndiwo [] kupenda kwachidule [1]: lamulo liyenera kutumikira chikondwerero cha boma ndi kukonzedwa pang’ono kuti likwaniritse chikondwerero chimenecho. Malamulo amene sakhudza ufulu waukulu, muyezo watsika kwambiri — kuyesa kwa maziko oyenerera , kumene kumafuna kuti lamulo likhale logwirizana ndi chifuno choyenerera cha boma. Malamulo aŵiri opangidwa ndi mbali ziŵiri otetezera ufulu wambiri popanda kulola oweruza kukhazikitsa malamulowo.

's recuimery ya milandu ya Khoti Lalikulu imapereka kusanthula kwatsatanetsatane kwa zigamulo zofunika, kuphatikizapo chisinthiko cha zoyenera zachinsinsi.

Zotsatirapo pa Msonkhano Uliwonse wa Apandu

Chitetezo cha ntchito yoikika sichili kokha pa mlandu weniweniwo.

Kumangidwa ndi Kuoneka Koyamba

Kumangidwa kuyenera kuzikidwa pa chifukwa chothekera — maziko oyenera kukhulupirira upandu unachitika ndi kuti wowonedwayo anachita. Mwamsanga atagwidwa, wonyumwiridwayo ayenera kuperekedwa kwa majaji popanda kuchedwa kosafunikira kaamba ka chochititsa chothekera. Ichi ndicho Gerstein [[FL:1] kumva (kumene kunatchulidwa pambuyo pa GErstein v. Pugh], chimene chimatsimikizira kuti anthu sagwidwa m’ndende mopanda lamulo.

Kuyamba kwa Ntchito: Kulephera Kugwira Ntchito, ndi Kutulukira

Demendulo la 88 limaletsa kuchuluka kwa maliro, koma mchitidwe woyenerera umafunanso kuti zosankha za kuzengedwa mlandu kukhale zozikidwa pa kupenda kwa munthu payekha kwa ngozi ya kuthaŵa ndi ngozi kwa chitaganya. Pambali imeneyi, oimbidwa mlandu ali ndi kuyenera kwa kumvetsera koyamba kuyesa umboni wokwanira, ndipo ali ndi ufulu wotulukira umboni wa wozenga mlanduwo — njira yolamuliridwa ndi Brady v. Mary (1963), imene imafunikira boma kutembenuza umboni uliwonse wopereka umboni.

Kuzengedwa Mlandu ndi Kulangidwa

Pa mlandu, woimbidwa mlanduyo ali ndi ufulu wa kufulumira kuchitika, kuyenera kupezekapo, ndi kuyenera kwa mlandu wa oweruza milandu yopatsidwa chilango cha kumangidwa kwa miyezi isanu ndi umodzi. Mlanduwo uyenera kutsimikizira kuti ndi wolakwa. Pambuyo pa chitsimikiziro, wofunikira kupitiriza kugwira ntchito pa chiweruziro: woimbidwa mlanduyo ayenera kulandira chidziŵitso cha mfundo zilizonse zimene woweruza adzalingalira, mwaŵi wa kutsutsa mlanduwo, ndi mafotokozedwe olingaliridwa a mlanduwo. Zigamu za Khoti Lapamwambalo m' [FLT: 0] Appndi v. New Jersey [FL:1] [2] [2000] ndi [FLT:] Blaw] V. Washington [FLT:]

Kukopa ndi Kupenda Kotsatira

Kuyenera kwa kufunsira sikumatsimikiziridwa ndi Konsichushoniyo, koma pamene boma lasankha kupanga dongosolo la kulamula, njira yoyenerera imafunikira kuti liperekedwe bwino. Oimbidwa mlandu osavomerezedwa ayenera kupatsidwa mapepala ozengedwa mlandu ndi maloya pochita apilo. Habeas corpus akhalabe chitetezo chotheratu, akumalola akaidi kutsutsa kutsekeredwa koletsedwa ndi lamulo m’khoti.

Zotsatirapo za Kuswa Njira Yoyenera

Pamene boma lilephera kuchirikiza njira yoyenera, zotsatirapo zake zingakhale zoipa kwambiri — ponse paŵiri kwa oimbidwa mlandu ndi kaamba ka chidaliro cha anthu onse m’dongosolo la chiweruzo.

Zikhulupiriro Zolakwa

Chotsatirapo chatsoka kwambiri ndicho chitsimikizo cha munthu wopanda liwongo. Chiyambire 1989, anthu oposa 3,600 amasulidwa ku United States, ambiri chifukwa cha kuswa njira yoyenerera: kuulula kokakamiza, kumanidwa umboni wa kuŵerengera, chithandizo chosagwira ntchito cha uphungu, kapena njira zodzidziŵikitsa zolakwika. The Innocence Project ikusimba kuti umboni wa DNA wamasula mwalamulo mazana ambiri a anthu oimbidwa mlandu molakwa, ena a iwo anathera zaka makumi ambiri pa mzera wa imfa.

Kulakwa kwa Milandu ndi Kukonzanso

Pamene woweruza wozenga mlandu kapena woweruza mlandu aswa ufulu wofunikira wa woimbidwa mlandu pakati pa mlandu, chotulukapo chingakhale kulakwa. Pa apilo, zikhululukiro zimasinthidwa ngati kulakwako sikuli kopanda vuto — ndiko kuti, ngati pali kuthekera koyenera kuti kunayambukira chigamulo. Pamene kuli kwakuti kugamula kungawonedwe kukhala njira ya kuŵerengera mlandu, iwo amakakamizanso mikhole, mboni, ndi anthu, ndipo angachedwetse chilungamo kwa zaka zambiri.

Kuchepa kwa Kukhulupirira Anthu

Mwinamwake chivulazo chachinsinsi kwambiri ndicho kutha kwa kudalirana kwa malamulo. Pamene anthu aona kuti njira yoyenera imagwiritsiridwa ntchito mosiyana — mwachitsanzo, pamene anthu a mafuko aang'ono amamanidwa belo kapena kupatsidwa chilango chankhanza — kugwirizana ndi kusungidwa kwa lamulo kumachepa, ndipo kuyenera kwa makhoti kumatsutsidwa. Milandu yaikulu ya kupulupudza kwa oweruza, yonga ngati kuchotsa umboni mu Brady [1] , mfundo zowonjezereka zowononga chikhulupiriro. Kubwezeretsa chikhulupiriro kumafuna kusungidwa kwa njira yoyenerera ndi kuŵerengera mlandu kwa oitsutsa.

Mavuto Amene Adzabwere

Zinthu zambiri masiku ano zimavuta kwambiri chifukwa zimadalira luso latsopano, kusintha kwa chikhalidwe cha anthu, ndiponso kuchititsa kuti anthu amvetse mfundo za chilungamo.

Kugwiritsa Ntchito Makompyuta ndi Kukhala Kokha

Kufala kwa tekinoloji yofufuza — kujambula foni, kuzindikira nkhope, ma algoritime a polisi oneneratu za kutsogolo — kumadzutsa mafunso aakulu ponena za Demence ndi njira yoyenerera. Mu Carpeenter v. United States (2018), Khoti Lapamwamba linkanena kuti boma limafunikira chilolezo cha kutulukira chidziŵitso cha malo a selo, kuzindikira kuti kuyang'anizira kwa digiri kukhoza kuvumbula tsatanetsatane wa moyo wa munthu. Pamene nzeru zopeka za m'machenjera imakhala yophatikizidwa kwambiri m'choloŵa ntchito ya polisi ndipo ngakhale zigamuweruzo, makhoti ayenera kusankha kaya kuti ntchito ikufuna kuonekera bwino ndi mpata wotsutsa magome.

Kusiyana Mafuko ndi Makhalidwe Oipa

Kufufuza kosalekeza kumasonyeza kuti oimbidwa mlandu Akuda ndi Achispanya amachitiridwa nkhanza pambali iriyonse ya dongosolo la chiweruzo chaupandu — kuyambira pa ziŵerengero zapamwamba za kumangidwa ndi kumangidwa kumbuyoko kufikira ku zilango zotalikirapo. Pamene kuli kwakuti tsankho la fuko lachindunji ndi kukondera kwa magulu kumakhala ndi zotulukapo zimene zimawombana ndi chitetezo chofananacho m’dongosolo loyenerera. Khoti Lapamwambalo silifuna kuzindikira “chiyambukiro chopatutsa” chokha monga kuswa lamulo, koma ochirikiza ndi akatswiri amaphunziro mowonjezereka amatsutsa kuti njira zoyenerera zofunikira kusanthula malamulo amene amapanga magaŵano a mafuko otsimikizirika.

Kulephera Kugwiritsa Ntchito Ndalama ndi Kuteteza Anthu

Ngakhale kuti Chigamulo chija [[FT: 1]] Chigamulo, madongosolo otetezera anthu m'maiko ambiri ali oletsedwa nthaŵi zonse. Maselo akuphwanya, kufufuza nkwakung'ono, ndipo oimbidwa mlandu kaŵirikaŵiri amawona maloya awo kwa mphindi zochepa asanamve. Zimenezi zingafooketse chithandizo chatanthauzo cha uphungu umene umafunika. Mabwalo angapo ayesa kukakamiza maboma kupereka chuma chokwanira, ndi chipambano chogaŵana. Kufikira pamene mpata pakati pa chipambano cha ntchito yoyenerera ndi kukwaniritsidwa kwa ndalama za ndalama za kutsekedwa, lonjezo la chiweruzo la chilungamo silidzakwaniritsidwa kwa ambiri.

Kumaliza: Kufunika Kosatha kwa Ntchito Yofunika

Kutsatira njira yoyenerera si kukhwimitsa malamulo kapena chopinga. Ndizo dongosolo la malamulo ndi lamphamvu limene limapanga mphamvu ya boma kukhala yovomerezeka ndi yolungama. Kuchokera ku chitsimikizo chakale cha Magna Carta kufikira ku machinjiriza amakono otsimikiziridwa m'malo a bwalo lamilandu Lapamwamba, njira yoyenerera imatsimikizira kuti palibe aliyense amene amalangidwa popanda mpata weniweni wa kudzitetezera, kuti malamulo sapondereza kapena kupondereza, ndi kuti dongosolo lachilungamo la milandu limalamulira ulemu wa amene limatumikira. Kusunga malamulo ameneŵa kumafuna kukhala ndi chuma chosatha, ndi kudzipereka kuti apambane ndi mlandu uliwonse kapena mkangano. Monga momwe chitaganya chikusinthira, choteronso kumasulira ndi kugwiritsa ntchito ntchito kwa njira yoyenerera — nthaŵi zonse ndi cholinga cha kupereka chilungamo kwa aliyense amene amatumikira.

[[FLT :0] Kalongosoledwe ka American Bar Association ka kachitidwe koyenera m'bwalo kamapereka mawu apatsogolo othandiza kaamba ka malamulo amakhalidwe abwino ameneŵa m’kachitidwe.