Chiyambi: Kutchuka kwa Maulamuliro

Makonzedwe a dongosolo la ndale zadziko amasankha mmene mphamvu imagawidwira pakati pa ulamuliro wapakati ndi madera ake. Kugaŵira kumeneku kumayambukira mowopsya kugwirizana kwa mtundu ndi mlingo wa kudzilamulira kwa chigawo. Pakati pa zitsanzo zambiri pali masinthidwe ndi [FLT] [[FL:2] denderal [FLT] , [madongosolo]. Malamulo aŵiri ameneŵa amakhala kumbali zosiyana ndi mbali zina za kulinganiza kwa mbali zake zonse. Kumvetsetsa maluso awo nkofunika kwa asayansi andale zadziko, opanga malamulo, ndi nzika zimene zimafuna kupenda madongosolo a maiko amakono.

Nkhani ino ikupereka kusanthula kowonjezereka kwa madongosolo a kagwirizanidwe ka zinthu ndi boma, kufufuza maziko awo oyerekezera, chisinthiko cha mbiri yakale, kukwaniritsidwa kwenikweni kwa dziko, ndi kusagwirizana kopitirizabe pakati pa umodzi ndi kudzilamulira. Tidzapenda mmene dongosolo lililonse limasinthira kugwirizana kwa maboma a dziko ndi madera, malonda oloŵetsedwamo, ndi maphunziro amene angapezedwe kaamba ka mavuto amakono a ulamuliro.

Kufotokoza Njira Yosinthira Zinthu

Dongosolo la chigwirizano (nthaŵi zambiri limatchulidwa kukhala mgwirizano wa ufulu, kulamulira) ndilo mgwirizano wa maboma akuti mwaufulu amagaŵira maulamuliro opereŵera ku ulamuliro wapakati. M’kakonzedweka, mamembalawo amakhalabe omanga ulamuliro wandale, ndipo boma lalikulu limakhala kokha kaamba ka zolinga zongofotokozedwa pang’ono . Moti amene ali ovuta kuyang’anira boma limodzi lokha, monga ngati kutetezerana, kuchirikizana kwa maiko ena, kapena ndalama imodzi. Ulamuliro wapakati sutha kukakamiza nzika zake kuti zichite chifuniro chake mwachindunji; m’malo mwake, ayenera kudalira pa kugwirizana ndi kuvomerezana kwa maboma.

Malamulo amadziŵika ndi malo ofooka ndi [FLT :2] . Boma lalikulu silingachotse msonkho, kukweza gulu lankhondo, kapena kukhazikitsa malamulo amene amagwira ntchito mwachindunji kwa anthu opanda kubooledwa ndi mamembala. Zosankha kaŵirikaŵiri zimafuna kutchuka kapena chivomerezo chimodzi, kupatsa boma lililonse likhale logwira mtima pa malamulo aakulu. Kachipangizoka kamathandiza kwambiri pa zinthu zina zonse, kuchititsa kuti anthu a m’madera osiyanasiyana agwirizane ndi zolinga zawo koma kawiri m’zochitika zosiyanasiyana.

Zitsanzo Za m’Mbiri za Zonena

Chitsanzo chotchuka kwambiri cha mbiri yakale ndicho United States pansi pa Zigawo za Confederation (1781-1789). Pambuyo polengeza ufulu kuchokera ku Britain, maboma oyambirira khumi ndi atatu anapanga mgwirizano womasuka umene unasunga ulamuliro wa boma lililonse, ufulu, ndi ufulu. Boma lalikulu linali Nyumba ya Malamulo ya Universeal yomwe siinalowererepo mphamvu ya msonkho kapena yolamulira malonda a mayiko. Kulephera kukweza ndalama kapena kukhazikitsa mapangano kunachititsa chipwirikiti cha zachuma ndi kusakhazikika kwa ndale, pomalizira pake kusonkhezera kulandiridwa kwa U.S. Constitution ndi dongosolo la boma.

Chitsanzo chaposachedwapa ndicho Eupan Union (EFLT , [FULT:1]], imene imasonyeza zizindikiro zina. Ziŵalo za EU zikukhalabe zolamulira, koma zapatsa maulamuliro ena monga malamulo a zamalonda, lamulo, ndi malamulo a ndalama kwa mabungwe a yurozoni , ndi mabungwe a yukrania monga European Commission, Council of European Union, ndi Palamenti ya Ulaya. Komabe, EU siigwirizana kotheratu chifukwa chakuti mabungwe ake angapereke malamulo amene amayenderana mwachindunji ndi ziwalo zawo, ndipo Court of European Justice iri ndi ulamuliro wa kumasulira lamulo la EUS. Motero bungwe la EUCIS, lopanga malamulo a probian * (Unic).

Zogwirizana zina za mbiri yakale zimaphatikizapo Confederacy ya Switzerland (1291-1798) [1] [1] kugwirizana kopanda malire kwa macanton kumene kunasinthika kokha kukhala boma la boma mu 1848(ndipo Kuvomereza kwa Rhine (186691) , chiŵalo chachifrenchi cha zigawo zazikulu za Jeremani. Mu Africa, moyo waufupi [FLT: 4.] SSELAa Confederation (19989) [19989] [[FLT] Senegalvel ndi Game ndi Game , koma chifukwa cha kusoŵa kwa ndalensi ya ndale.

Mphamvu ndi Zofooka za Kukambitsirana

Mphamvu

  • Ufulu wa chigawo wosungidwa: Maboma a m'bungwe angagwirizane ndi malamulo a kumaloko popanda kudodometsedwa ndi munthu wina wamkulu.
  • Kukhoza ndi kuyesa: maiko osiyanasiyana angagwire ntchito monga “maluso a demokrase,” malamulo oyesa amene angavomerezedwe ndi ena pambuyo pake.
  • [[Nthaŵi:0] Consensus-kumanga: Kumafunikira kukambitsirana ndi kulolera, kukhoza kupanga mapangano okhalitsa kwambiri pamene afikiridwa.

Zofooka

  • Kupanga zosankha zosathandiza: [[FT:1] Zofunika zosagwirizana kaŵirikaŵiri zimatsogolera ku kutseguka kwa malo ndi kulephera kuyankha ku mavuto (m’chitsanzo, U.S.S. sikunathe kusonkhanitsa gulu lankhondo la dziko lonse kuti litsenderere Chipanduko cha Shay mu 17866].
  • Kusungitsa magetsi: Bwana wamkulu alibe mphamvu yokakamiza kugonjera kwa maboma, kuchititsa mavuto aufulu.
  • Umodzi wa dziko: popanda mabungwe amphamvu, kaŵirikaŵiri chizindikiritso chimazikidwa pa chigawocho mmalo mwa mtundu, kupangitsa chigwirizanocho kukhala chosavuta kutha.

Kufotokoza Dongosolo la Mafuko

Dongosolo la boma limagawa ulamuliro pakati pa boma lalikulu ndi maboma achigawo (kaŵirikaŵiri otchedwa maboma, zigawo, kapena zigawo). Mitengo yonse iŵiri imapeza ulamuliro wawo kuchokera ku malamulo olembedwa amene amapatsa mphamvu zakutizakuti iliyonse, ndipo samasinthanso mosasintha. Federalism imalinganizidwira kufikitsa malo apakati: boma lalikulu limasamalira nkhani za nkhaŵa ya dzikolo (zamalonda adziko, za ndalama, zamalonda a chigawo cha boma), pamene maboma a m'chigawocho amayang'anira nkhani za dzikolo (bizinesi, zoyendera, zoyendera, ntchito zapangika).

M'madongosolo a boma, nzika zimagonjera ku mabungwe aŵiri olamulira osiyana: boma la dziko ndi boma lawo. Malamulo amaphatikizapo ndandanda ya maulamuliro oŵerengedwa a boma lalikulu, okhala ndi mphamvu zotsala zosiidwa ku maboma. Makonzedwe ameneŵa amapanga ulamuliro wa munthu aliyense [ kumene milingo yonse imagwira ntchito modziimira pa mbulunga zawo, komabe kaŵirikaŵiri imagwirizana ndi kugwirizana ndi mayanjano a boma.

Mbali Zazikulu za Madongosolo Ankhondo

  • Kugaŵikana kwa maulamuliro: Maboma adziko ndi madera ali ndi mphamvu zokha ndi zamakono zoikidwa bwino lomwe m'lamulo lalikulu.
  • Nyumba ya malamulo yachibicamera: Kaŵirikaŵiri] nyumba yoikizira boma imaphatikizapo nyumba yoimira (m’ lekuatiso, Nyumba ya Oimira) ndi nyumba yoimira maboma mofanana (m’jereng, Khoti) kutetezera zikondwerero za chigawo.
  • Ilo logamulapo: Khoti lovomerezedwa ndi lamulo kapena khoti lalikulu limathetsa mikangano pakati pa milingo ya boma.
  • Ufulu wa ndale zadziko: Madziko ali ndi malamulo awo, malamulo okhazikitsa malamulo, mabwana, ndi oweruza.
  • Msonkho wogawidwa: Mitengo yonse iŵiri ikhoza kutulutsa misonkho ya chiwindi, ngakhale kuti boma la dzikolo kwenikweni liri ndi magwero aakulu a ndalama.

Zitsanzo Zotchuka za Gulu

United States ndi dongosolo la boma lachikulu, lokhazikitsidwa ndi Konsichushoni ya 1787. Boma la boma lasankha maulamuliro (Katswiri I, Chigawo 8), pamene Communist Amendment ya khumi imasunga maulamuliro ena onse ku maboma kapena anthu. Mkupita kwa nthaŵi, mphamvu za boma zofutukulidwa kupyolera mu Commercial Clause, nkhondo ya Chiŵeniŵeni, ndi kupatsa maprogramu a programu a iin, koma maboma amasunga ulamuliro waukulu m'madera onga chilungamo, maphunziro, ndi kuyang'anira nthaka.

Germany ndi chitsanzo chapadera cha dongosolo la boma logwirizana (kaŵirikaŵiri lotchedwa “university ). Boma la dziko (Bund) lizikopa, koma maboma (Länder) amagwiritsira ntchito malamulo ambiri. Bundesrat (nyumba yaikulu) imaimira maboma a Länder, kuwapatsa mphamvu yotsogolera pa malamulo a dziko amene amakhudza zikondwerero zawo.

India inatengera dongosolo la boma lokhala ndi chikhoterero chachikulu chokhalira ndi kugawa kwa kusiyanasiyana kwakukulu kwa chinenero, chipembedzo, ndi fuko. Bukhu la malamulo limandandalika nkhani pansi pa Mndandanda wa Union, State, List, ndi Connuctal List. Ngati pali mkangano, lamulo la Union likukhalapo. Mosasamala kanthu za dongosolo lake la boma, India waona nyengo za kukhazikika, makamaka panthaŵi ya ngozi.

Maboma ena a boma amaphatikizapo Mexico [1] , Australia [1] , Brazil, ndi [FLT] Mexico [1] . Chionetsero chilichonse chapadera ku mikhalidwe ya kumaloko, chitsanzo, dongosolo la Canada limaphatikizapo kutetezera kwachiŵereŵeni ndi kwa chikhalidwe cha anthu.

Mphamvu ndi Zofooka za Madongosolo a Magulu Oyendera

Mphamvu

  • Kusiyana pakati pa umodzi ndi kusiyana: Federalism imalola madera kusungabe kudalirana kwinaku akuthandizira ntchito ya dziko.
  • Kulephera pa ulamuliro: Mavuto a kumaloko angathetsedwe, mavuto a dziko, kupeŵa malamulo aukulu umodzi.
  • Sec pa mphamvu yapakati: Madziko angathandize kuletsa ulamuliro wa dziko, kutetezera ufulu.
  • Kusintha ndi kuyambitsa: Malamulo aupainiya (m' lekuatiso, kusintha kwa kakhalidwe, malamulo a malo okhala) amene pambuyo pake angafalikire m’dziko lonselo.

Zofooka

  • Kuvuta ndi kucholoŵana: maufumu ambiri angapangitse kuti maulamuliro azikhala ogwirizana, aultraucracy kusagwira ntchito, ndi kusokonezeka.
  • [[ML:0] Kulingana pakati pa malamulo: maiko achuma angapereke mautumiki abwinopo kuposa aumphaŵi, kukulitsa nkhaŵa za kusakondera.
  • Nkhondo za dziko: mosalekeza kulimbana pa ukulu woyenera wa mphamvu iliyonse ikhoza kutsogolera ku nkhondo za lamulo ndi ndale zadziko.
  • Mfundo za m'malamulo ogaŵanika: maboma ogaŵanika pa milingo yonse iŵiri angalepheretse mfundo zogwirizanitsa.

Kuyerekezera Confederal ndi Federal System: Unity-Idenomy Trade-eff

Madongosolo onse andale ayenera kuthetsa mkangano pakati pa chikhumbo cha kachitidwe ka gulu (umodzi) ndi chikhumbo cha kulamulira kwaumwini kwa kumaloko. Kugwirizanitsa ndi kutumiza kudziko kumasonyeza mbali ziŵiri zosiyana zimenezi.

M'chigwirizano, izi zingakhale zoyenera pamene mamembala asankha kukhala ndi ufulu wokwanira [1] pa kusoŵa mgwirizano wa dziko. Boma lalikulu lili ndi mphamvu zochepa zokakamiza miyezo yofanana, kuchotsa zinthu, kapena kusonkhanitsa zochita za dziko. Zimenezi zingakhale zoyenera pamene mamembala a mayiko agwirizana pang'ono ndi kukhumba kugwirizana kokha m’madera ochepetsedwa, monga ngati m'chigwirizano cha chitetezo kapena m'chigawo chaufulu. Komabe, kuyesayesa kukakamiza kuyendetsa zinthu motsimikiza, makamaka m'nthaŵi za nkhondo kapena zachuma. Cholembedwa cha mbiri yakale chimasonyeza kuti mapangano ambiri amasinthana kulowa m'zaledzere kapena kutuluka, monga momwe aliri zogwirizana ndi zigwirizano za boma kuti zikhalebe zopimira kwa nthaŵi yaitali.

M'dongosolo la boma, umodzi wa dziko lonse umaikidwa patsogolo pamene likutetezera ufulu wa chigawo chimodzi mwa zitsimikizo za lamulo. Boma lalikulu lili ndi ulamuliro wosungitsa malamulo a dziko, msonkho, ndi kupereka katundu wa anthu onse, koma boma limadzisunga lokha. Malamulowo angasinthe pa nthaŵi: madongosolo a boma angakhale okhazikika kwambiri (monga ku United States pambuyo pa New Decture) kapena olemekezeka kwambiri (monga mu Canada kudzera mu devolution). Mfundo yofunika njakuti madongosolo a boma angasinthe mikhalidwe popanda kusweka, chifukwa chakuti ali ndi madongosolo a kupanga chosankha ndi kutsutsana kwa mgwirizanowo.

Kupenda Nkhani: Kuchokera ku Kugwirizana Kunka ku United States

Kusintha kwa nkhani za Kusintha kwa Malamulo kukusonyeza kulephera kwachibadwa kwa ulamuliro wa boma. Pansi pa Nkhanizo, Nyumba ya Malamulo sinathe kukhazikitsa gulu lankhondo lotetezera nkhondo za ku Britain ku malirewo, sikukanalamulira malonda pakati pa mayiko (kutsogolera kunkhondo ndi malamulo a boma), ndipo sikukanabweza ngongole za nkhondo za chisinthiko. Kulephera kuchitapo kanthu kwa Shays (kuukira kwa alimi kwa mangawa a ngongole ku Massachusetts) kunapangitsa atsogoleri ambiri kutsimikiza kuti boma lalikulu linali lofunikira. Malamulowo anapanga dongosolo la boma lokhala ndi nduna yamphamvu, jadiary, ndi luso la kupereka msonkho ndi kuyendetsa malonda mwachindunji. Kusintha kumeneku kunakulitsa umodzi wa dziko ndi kukula kwa chuma, ngakhale kuti kunasonkhezeranso kutsutsana pa ufulu wa mayiko a Massachusettslands.

Kufufuza za Matenda: Komiti ya Ulaya Yoona za Madzi Okhala ndi Madzi Otentha

European Union imafotokozedwa kaŵirikaŵiri kukhala “ikugwirizana . chifukwa chakuti mamembala ake amasunga ulamuliro, koma asintha zinthu. EU ili ndi ndalama yakeyake (ya yurozone), banki yapakati (ECB), nyumba ya malamulo yosankhidwa mwachindunji, ndi bwalo lamilandu limene malamulo ake akugwira ntchito ku mayiko a mamembala. Komabe, EUS ilibe malamulo achilendo, ilibe gulu lankhondo loima, ndipo ikhoza kugwira ntchito mwapadera mwa kupatsidwa ndi Auganda. Mgwirizanowo umakhalabe kuyesa kwapadera kwa ulamuliro wadziko popanda kupanga boma lokhala ndi chiwombolo chokwanira. Posachedwapa mavuto a Yuro, vuto losamuka, Bret , Brexit , kuvumbula maluso onse aŵiri a bungwe la EUS, kuvumbula maluso a UC (aultive) ndi mavuto ofunikira kwambiri.

Kufufuza za Umodzi wa Boma ndi Kudziloŵetsa m’Maboma m’Ndale Zamakono

Kusankha pakati pa makonzedwe a kulinganiza ndi a boma sikuli kokha maphunziro; kuli ndi zotulukapo zazikulu. Maiko oyang'anizana ndi madera akuya a mafuko, a zinenero, kapena magawano achipembedzo kaŵirikaŵiri amalingalira chigwirizano cha boma kukhala chipangizo chogwirizanitsira boma mwa kupatsa malo a magulu ochepa. Zitsanzo zimaphatikizapo Beligium (kugawana pakati pa madera a Flammash ndi Chifrenchi), Spain [[FLT:] [3] (ndi midzi ya Auniko yonga ndi Bacquean , ndi zitsenderations. [FLT:] Ethiotaiota] [FLD:5] (kugwirizana ndi mafuko). Mkhalidwe limeneli, “kuyesa kuphatikizapo kuletsa malamulo ndi“ zigawa.

Mosiyana ndi zimenezo, mapikica audindo sagwiritsidwa ntchito kaŵirikaŵiri m'maiko amakono chifukwa chakuti ali ofooka kwambiri kuyang'anira chuma ndi madongosolo a zaumoyo wa anthu. Komabe, lamulo lachigwirizano likupitirizabe m'mabungwe a mitundu yonse ndi madera a malonda, kumene maboma amagwirizana koma amasunga ulamuliro wonse. African Union ndi Association of Nations (ASCENT) imagwira ntchito pa zigamu za pulogamu za , kuchepetsa mphamvu yawo ya kugwirizanitsa malamulo aunyito.

Kutsutsana kopitirizabe m'maiko monga Myamar (kumene mafuko aang'ono amafuna ufulu wa boma) ndi Sudan (zimene zinayesa boma logwirizana pansi pa mtendere wa 2005 zimapereka) zimasonyeza kuti mapangidwe a dongosolo la boma angatsimikizire ngati dziko lipeza mtendere wosatha kapena likufuna kuloŵa m'nkhondo yachiŵeniŵeni. Pamene kakonzedwe ka boma kawo kamaonedwa kukhala kosayenera (m. g., kugawa kwa chuma, kwenikweni kukhoza kufotokoza zidandaulo za chigawo m’malo mwa kugamula. Mofananamo, dongosolo lapakati lingawononge malo, kuyendetsa progalamu ya m'chigawo.

Ntchito ya Malamulo ndi Malamulo

Madongosolo onse aŵiri a boma ndi a boma amadalira pa chikalata chalamulo chokhazikitsidwa chimene chimachotsa kugaŵidwa kwa mphamvu. Pakugwirizana, pangano kapena mgwirizano ukhoza kuchotsedwa ndi boma lachiŵalo . Chigwirizanocho chimaloledwa ndi boma. M'dongosolo la boma, malamulo apamwamba, ndipo kugaŵana kumavuta kwambiri (monga momwe kunasonyezedwera ndi nkhondo yachiŵeniŵeni). Malamulo amakhazikitsanso njira zopimira kugaŵira mphamvu, zimene zingakhale zolimba (kulimbana ndi mphamvu yaikulu ya maboma) kapena kusintha.

Makhoti a Konsichushoni amachita mbali yaikulu pomasulira malire a ulamuliro. Mwachitsanzo, ku United States, khoti Lapamwamba lapanga malamulo a boma kudzera m'milandu yosintha zinthu monga *McCulloch v. Maryland* (1819), imene inakhazikitsa maulamuliro a boma la boma, ndi * United States v. Lopez* (1995), amene anakhazikitsanso mphamvu za boma pansi pa Commercias. Malamulo ofananawo alipo ku Germany (Federal Constitution Court), India (Supreme Court), ndi mapeding .

Kumaliza: Kusankha Kulinganizika Koyenera

Madongosolo a boma kapena a boma samakhala apamwamba mwachibadwa; kuyenerera kwawo kumadalira pa nkhani za mbiri yakale, kusiyana, ndi zolinga za ndale zadziko. Mabungwe apambana pa kusunga ufulu koma kaŵirikaŵiri amalephera kupereka ulamuliro ndi umodzi wogwira ntchito. Mabungwewo amapanga kulinganizika kolimba koma amafuna kukambitsirana ndi kusungidwa kosalekeza kuti apeŵe kugwera m’magulu ankhondo apakati kapena ogaŵanika pansi pa chuma.

Kwa opanga malamulo, phunziro lalikulu ndilo nkhani za kulinganiza. Kugaŵidwa kwa maulamuliro kuyenera kudziŵidwa ku zenizeni za boma. Nthaŵi zina, kulamulidwa ndi boma kwa aymetric . Kumene madera osiyanasiyana ali ndi magawo osiyanasiyana a ufulu . Kwa ena, chitsanzo chosiyana chingakhale ndi mphamvu ya boma. Pomalizira pake, chipambano cha dongosolo lililonse chimadalira pa kufunitsitsa kwa atsogoleri ndi nzika kugonjera malamulo a malamulo, kuloŵa m’kuthetsa mwamtendere, ndi kuika patsogolo ubwino wofala pa zinthu za m’chigawo.

Mwa kuphunzira madongosolo a mgwirizano ndi a boma, timapeza chidziŵitso cha zosankha za maziko zimene zimapanga zitaganya za ndale zadziko. Pamene dziko likukhala logwirizana kwambiri komanso logaŵanika, zitsanzo zapadera zimenezi zikupitirizabe kupereka maphunziro ofunika kwambiri a kuyang’anira ulamuliro umene uli ponse paŵiri wogwira mtima ndi waulemu wa mitundu yosiyanasiyana.