Chiyambi: Kupangidwa Kwamphamvu kwa Chitetezo cha Chiŵeniŵeni

Federalism ku United States imapanga njira yokhala ndi malingaliro obisika ndi nthaŵi zina yotetezera ufulu wa anthu. Chifukwa chakuti ponse paŵiri boma la dziko ndi maboma ali ndi ulamuliro wachifumu, ufulu weniweni umene munthu ali nawo ungadalire malo amene amakhala ndi ndi kapena ngati lamulo la boma limakhala patsogolo pa nkhani inayake. Kuphatikiza kumeneku sikukungoyerekezera; kumasintha zinthu za tsiku ndi tsiku m’madera monga ngati kulankhula mwaufulu, kuchita zinthu zachipembedzo, kuyenera kwa kubereka, kusanthula, ndi kukhala chinsinsi. Kwa aphunzitsi, ophunzira, ndi nzika, kuzindikira mmene malamulo a boma alili ofunika poyendetsa malo alamulo ndi kutetezera ufulu wa munthu payekha.

Malamulo, makamaka Bill of Rights, amakhazikitsa malo otetezera omwe kulibe mlingo wa boma. Komabe malamulo a boma, malamulo, ndi mafotokozedwe achiweruzo kaŵirikaŵiri amawonjezera chitetezo chimenecho kapena kupereka mapangano ena. Unansi pakati pa miyalo iŵiri ya malamulo imeneyi umafotokozedwa ndi Suprematy Claus, chiphunzitso cha kuloŵetsedwa, ndi malamulo a ulamuliro a nthaŵi zonse. Nkhaniyi ikupenda maziko a ufulu wa anthu ku United States, ntchito zapadera za boma ndi malamulo, njira zimene zimalamulira kugwirizana kwawo, ndi kusagwirizana kumene kukuchitikabe.

Maziko a Kumasuka kwa Chiŵeniŵeni

Mlanduwo wa Ufulu ndi Malire Oyambirira

Kusintha koyambirira kwa khumi ku Malamulo a United States, kovomerezedwa mu 1791, kunalingaliridwa poyamba kukhala kuchepetsa mphamvu za boma. Mpando woyamba wowonjezera umaletsa kukhazikitsa malamulo akuti ufulu wotsegulira mawu, chipembedzo, nyuzipepala, msonkhano, kapena pempho. Mpando wa Owonjezera wachinayi umaletsa kufufuza ndi kukomoka kwa boma. Malamulo achisanu ndi Sitandath amatsimikizira njira ya boma yoyenerera ndi zoyenera zoyesa. Panthaŵi ya kukhazikitsa, maboma sanali kumangidwa ndi makonzedwe ameneŵa, kutanthauza kuti boma lingakhazikitse chipembedzo chalamulo, kukhazikitsa, kulongosola, kapena kuletsa kwalamulo kapena kuletsa popanda kuswa lamulo la boma.

Kulephera kumeneku kunasonyeza masomphenya a okonza malo a boma mmene maboma anasunga mphamvu za apolisi ndi kutumikira monga otetezera ufulu wa nzika zawo. Komabe, mkupita kwa nthaŵi, Geneth Amendment inasintha kwambiri kakonzedwe kameneka.

Mgwirizano wa 14 wa Kusintha ndi Kusagwirizana

Kugwiritsidwa ntchito mu 1868 pambuyo pa Nkhondo Yachiŵeniŵeni, Demetrime ya 14th Commission inayambitsa ziletso zatsopano zotsutsa ulamuliro wa boma. Malo Ovomerezeka kapena maulamuliro ake Claus, Claus Claus, ndi Aumente Protection Claus adapanga njira yogwiritsira ntchito ufulu wa boma pa maboma. Bwalo Lapamwamba linayamba pang'onopang'ono chiphunzitso cha kusankha, pokhulupirira kuti bungwe la Act Procession Claus of the 145th Amendment (Malamulo a Ufulumishoni ya ufulu wa Ufulumizidwa kutsutsana ndi maboma.

Kupyola m'nkhani zotsatizana zopatsirana m’zaka za zana la 20, Bwalo linaphatikiza pafupifupi zitetezero zonse mu Bill of Rights, kuphatikizapo kulankhula kwaufulu ([[FLT: 0]] Gitrow v. New York, 1925, ufulu wa kusindikiza ([[FLT:]]]] Netrom V.[FLT]] [[FLT]]], 1931], kuyenera kwa uphungu ([FLT:] Geon. [Gideon . Waingrid[FL:], 1963]), kutetezeredwa ndi kudzitetezera kwa dyera ([FLT:] [magnome]]). Komabe, kuwonjezera pa zitsimikiz.

Zitetezero za Malamulo Ochitidwa Pansi pa Malamulo

Ngakhale kuti Konsichushoni yakhazikitsa maziko, Nyumba ya Malamulo yakhazikitsa malamulo ambiri amene amateteza ufulu wa anthu ndi ufulu wachibadwidwe.

Lamulo la 1964 la Ufulu Wachiŵeniŵeni

Chikalata cha Chivoligini Rights Act cha 1964 chiri pakati pa malamulo a boma otetezera ufulu wa munthu ndi kufanana. Mutu II umaletsa tsankho m'malo ogona a anthu onse pamaziko a fuko, mtundu, chipembedzo, kapena mtundu. Umutwe VII umaletsa tsankho la ntchito zozikidwa pa fuko, mtundu, chipembedzo, kugonana, kapena mtundu ndipo watembenuzidwa kupereka chitetezo ku ku kuvutitsidwa ndi kuvutitsidwa ndi kugonana ndi, ndi, m'malamulo otchuka, tsankho lozikidwa pa kusiyanitsa kwa kugonana ndi chisembwere ndi chibadwa (BHOSCHOCH v. Clayton County [F:1], 2020]).

Chikalata Chovomereza Ufulu wa Anthu cha 1965

Voing Rights Act (VRA) ndi chida champhamvu cha boma chotetezera kuyenera kwakukulu kwa kuvota. Chigawo 2 chimaletsa machitachita osankha amene amatulukapo kusankhana mafuko, pamene Chigawo 5 cha mbiri yakale chinafuna maulamuliro ena ndi mbiri ya tsankho kuti apeze malamulo a boma asanasinthe malamulo awo a chisankho. Ngakhale kuti chigamulo cha Khoti Lalikulu la 2013 mu Shelby County v. Khoti la Server . linachotsa lamulo lochititsa kusankhidwa kwa prenadance, VRA ikali yoyenerera, ndipo Congressssstion imasungabe ulamuliro wa kukonza njira zoletsa.

Malamulo Ena Apamwamba

Pambali pa machitidwe a ufulu wachibadwidwe, lamulo la boma limapereka chitetezo m'madera ambiri owonjezereka. Malamulo a America Omwe Ali ndi Ulemu (1990) amaletsa tsankho kwa anthu okhala ndi ulema pantchito, mautumiki a anthu onse, ndi malo ogona a anthu. Malamulo ameneŵa amaletsa kusiyanitsa anthu chifukwa cha fuko, mtundu, chipembedzo, malo a kugonana, mtundu, ndi kulemala. Freedom of Information Act (196666) ndi Act Act ya Undulo) kukhazikitsa kuonekera ndi chitetezo chachinsinsi chokhudzana ndi zolembedwa za bungwe la boma. Malamulo ameneŵa amapanga malo a pansi a boma omwe amanena kuti awonjezera koma safooketsa.

Zitetezero za Boma: Mabungwe a Ufulu

Maboma sali kokha ogwiritsira ntchito miyezo ya boma; iwo ali odziimira paokha okhala ndi ulamuliro wa kufutukula ufulu wa anthu m’njira zimene zimaposa zinsinsi za boma. Woweruza Louis Brandeis wofotokozedwa motchuka kukhala "maluso a demokrase," ndipo kupenda kumeneku kuli koyenerera kwenikweni kaamba ka ufulu wa anthu.

Malamulo a Boma Monga Maziko Odziimira Okha a Ufulu

Lamulo lililonse lili ndi lamulo la ufulu kapena chilengezo cha ufulu umene umateteza ufulu wa munthu. Zitetezero za boma zimenezi zingakhale zazikulu kwambiri kuposa zimene boma limachita. Mwachitsanzo, pamene kuli kwakuti, Lamulo Loyamba Lowonjezera limaletsa kukhazikitsidwa kwa chipembedzo, malamulo ena a boma ali ndi malamulo omveka bwino onena za ufulu wachipembedzo umene ukupitirira. Kufufuza ndi kulanda zinthu zachinsinsi kaŵirikaŵiri kumapereka chitetezo chachikulu kuposa Lamulo la Olamulira Achinayi. Malamulo a California, amaphatikizapo ufulu wa mabwalo a boma umene wamasulira moyenerera, kuwonjezera chitetezo kupyola pa jurisprudence.

Makhoti a boma nthaŵi zambiri amadalira pa "zifukwa zodzidalira ndi zokwanira za boma" kumasulira malamulo awo monga kupereka ufulu wochuluka kuposa wa Khoti Lapamwamba la U.S. lavomereza pansi pa Malamulo a boma. Zimenezi zimalola maboma kuteteza ufulu ngakhale pamene boma litsegulidwa. Pambuyo pa Dobs v. Jackson Akazi’s Health Organization [1] [2002] anabweza malamulo ochotsera mimba ku maboma, makhoti aakulu angapo omasulira boma lokhala ndi lilo lovomerezeka kapena zopereka ufulu kutetezera kutuluka kwa mimba, kusonyeza kufunika kwa lamulo lalamulo la boma m'mafalidi . [2]

Malamulo a Boma Akulitsa Mfulu za Anthu

Malamulo a boma amakhazikitsanso malamulo amene amakulitsa ufulu wa munthu aliyense payekha. Popanda malamulo a boma oletsa kugonana ndi chinsinsi cha mwamuna ndi mkazi, maboma ambiri akhazikitsa malamulo oletsa tsankho pantchito, nyumba, ndi malo ogona pa malo a anthu. Pakuŵerengera kwaposachedwapa, maboma oposa makumi aŵiri ali ndi malamulo otero, pamene ena alibe chitetezo chenicheni. Mofananamo, malamulo a zachinsinsi a boma, monga ngati Commercie Consumer Accuracy Act (CPA), amapereka ufulu wa kuteteza zinthu zimene zilibe ndi mfundo za boma. Maboma akhazikitsanso "Banboll" malamulo oletsa kufunsa mbiri ya upandu pantchito, ndi "mbendera zowotcha" kulola kuti mfuti zichotsedwe pa zisonyezero zangozi zapangozi.

Kusiyanasiyana kwa njira za boma kumasonyeza lonjezo ndi chitokoso cha boma. Nzika za m'mayiko ena zimasangalala ndi chitetezo champhamvu chimene chimapitirira malamulo a boma, pamene ena angaone kuti malamulo a boma lawo akulephera kukwaniritsa zimene ochirikiza boma akuona kukhala zofunika.

Ntchito ya Federalism: Mmene Malamulo a Boma ndi Oloŵererana

Kumvetsetsa mmene malamulo a boma ndi a boma amagwirizanirana kumafunikiritsa kupenda malamulo alamulo angapo amene amalamulira unansi wawo.

Kutha Kusintha kwa Dziko

Mfundo VI ya Konsichushoni imakhazikitsa kuti lamulo la boma ndi "lamulo lapamwamba la Dziko," ndi kuti oweruza m'boma lililonse amamangidwa ndi ilo, "Iliyonse m'Malamulo kapena Malamulo a Boma lirilonse kutsutsana ndi ". Suprematy Claus imatanthauza kuti pamene lamulo la boma kapena lamulo lalamulo likutsutsana ndi lamulo la boma, lamulo la boma likupezeka. Lamulo limeneli la boma limakhala ndi mitundu yosiyanasiyana. Kuwomboledwa kumachitika pamene Congress akufotokoza momveka bwino cholinga chake cha kuchotsa lamulo la boma m’dera lina. Kuchotsapo lamulo la boma kumakhala kofala kwambiri pamene lamulo la boma limakhala lokhudza munda, kapena pamene lamulo la boma likutsutsana mwachindunji ndi malamulo a boma.

Chipulumutso ndi lupanga lolimba kwambiri la ufulu wa anthu. Chingaletse maboma kusakhazikitsa malamulo amene amaswa malamulo a boma, monga pamene Khoti lichotsa malamulo aufuko. Koma kumasulidwa kungachepetsenso zoyesayesa za boma kuwonjezera chitetezo. Mwachitsanzo, lamulo la boma la boma lakhala likutsekereza malamulo ena a boma amene anayesa kupanga njira zosungitsira lamulo lowonjezereka. Mofananamo, lamulo la boma la kulankhulana limatsekereza malamulo ena oyesa kulamulira mautumiki a pa Intaneti, kukhudza chitetezo cha ukonde pamlingo wa boma.

Ulamuliro Wogwirizana ndi Zitetezo Zogwirizana

M'mbali zambiri za ufulu wa anthu, malamulo a boma ndi a boma amagwira ntchito pamodzi mmalo mwa kukangana. Maboma aŵiri onsewo angapereke chitetezo chimene chimalimbitsana. Mwachitsanzo, malamulo a boma ndi a boma onse aŵiri amaletsa tsankho la ntchito, ndipo munthu angabweretse mapangano a ntchito. Mabungwe a boma ogwirizana ndi bungwe la United Nations Ocencessition Commissiontion kuti akonzetse madandaulo. Malamulo aŵiri ameneŵa a boma amapereka njira zothetsera ntchito ndipo amatsimikizira kuti magaŵano a ntchito agonana ndi ena.

Chigwirizano cha boma chikuwonekeranso m'nkhani ya ufulu wosankha. Lamulo la Federal limakhazikitsa miyezo ya kulembetsa wovota, chithandizo cha chilankhulo, ndi kupezeka, koma boma lingapereke masankho ndipo lingatsatire malamulo onga kuvota koyamba, kulembetsa kodzifunira, ndi kulembetsa tsiku limodzi kumene kumaposa pa zinsinsi za boma. Pamene maboma akuwonjezera, amakwaniritsa zolinga za boma. Pamene maboma akhazikitsa ziletso, kugwirizanako kumakhala ngati kuyang'anira, ndipo mathirakiti angatope malamulo a boma pansi pa malamulo a boma kapena malamulo a boma.

Maphunziro a Milandu mu Federal- State Interaction

Brown v. Board of Education and the Civil Rights Nyengo Yachibadwidwe

Chigamulo chosintha zinthu mu Brown v. Board of Education (1954) imasonyeza mmene kumasulira kwa lamulo la boma kungachotsere malamulo a boma amene amaletsa ufulu wa anthu. Khoti Lapamwamba linaona kuti malamulo a boma oletsa kusankhana mitundu m’masukulu a boma anaswa mfundo za Explot Claus detement of the 1450 Reformation. Ngakhale kuti kutsutsa kofala kuchokera ku maboma, kuphatikizapo "kutsutsa kogwirizana ndi boma" ku South, ulamuliro wa boma pomalizira pake anapambana. Mlandulo inatsimikizira kuti malamulo awo apolisi sangagwiritsire ntchito malamulo audindo oletsa upandu umene umatsutsana ndi zitsimikizo za boma.

M’bale Jambo, M’bale Jambo, ndi M’bale Russell

Chikalata cha ufulu wa kuchotsa mimba chimasonyeza kuyenera kwa mkazi kwa kugwirizana kwa boma. Rooe v. Wade [773], Bwalo Lapamwamba linavomereza kuti Geneth Demendment's Resclect Claus ikhoza kuteteza mkazi ku ku kuchotsa mimba, mwakutero kuswa malamulo ambiri a boma amene amaletsa kwambiri kufika. Kwa zaka pafupifupi makumi asanu, chitetezo cha boma chinalenga malo a dziko, ngakhale kuti malamulo aika malamulo a m’chigwirizano ndi mpangidwe wa Khoti. Pambuyo pa [[FL:]] Malamulo a Chilungamo]. [FLT:] [4] [4] Malamulo ovomerezedwa ndi ochirikizidwa ndi kutuluka m’chivomezi zina. Opa. Ogwirizana ndi kuchotsapo chivomerezo chachi.

Obergefell v. Hodges ndi Kulingana kwa Ukwati

Kutsutsana kwa ukwati kofananako kumasonyeza mmene makhoti a boma angathetsere mikangano pakati pa boma ndi boma yomasulira ufulu. Pasanafike [FT:0] Obergefell v. Hodges (2015), maboma ena anali atalola ukwati wauchigamulo chimodzi mwa malamulo kapena malamulo a bwalo lamilandu, pamene ena anali ndi malamulo oletsa ukwati ku maukwati osiyana ndi a boma. Khoti Lapamwamba linagamula ntchito imeneyi mwa kutsimikizira kuti kuyenera kwa okwatirana a m'banja limodzi lachikhalidwe chimodzi. Lamulo la boma lolamulira dziko lonselo, likukhazikitsa malamulo ofanana, kukhazikitsa malamulo alamulo. Panthaŵi imodzimodziyo, linanena kuti ukwati ukhale utalandira kale mathero ofunika kwambiri ndi kuthandiza kukhazikitsa maziko alamulo a dziko lonse.

Kupereka Ufulu wa Anthu ndi Chimaliziro cha Dera la Shelby

Chigamulo cha 2013 Selby County v. Raker chimasonyeza kusagwirizana pakati pa uyang'aniro wa boma ndi ufulu. Khoti Lapamwamba litagonjetsa njira yoperekera VRA, maboma ambiri anakhazikitsa malamulo ovomereza kuti otsutsa anatsutsa kwambiri osankhidwa a kagulu kochepa. Malamulowa anali ndi malamulo okhwima osankha, kuchepetsa kusankhidwa kwa mamembala, ndi ziletso pa makalata olembedwa. Makhoti apamwamba achititsa kuti zina za njirazi za VRA kapena pansi pa Konsongamira, koma ulamuliro wapasadatseke masinthidwe a kamodzi a kuganitsa kalelo asanachitepo kanthu. Zimenezi zikusonyeza kuti boma likhoza kukhazikitsa pamene boma likuchita ntchito yoyang’anira ndi kuchotsa ndale ya ndale.

Mavuto Apanthaŵi Ino m’Chitetezo cha Chiŵeniŵeni cha M’chigawo Chawo

Kusintha kwa Ufulu wa Dziko Lonse

Chotsatirapo chachikulu kwambiri cha kudalirana kwa boma ndi chitetezero chosalingana cha ufulu wa anthu m'dziko lonselo. Chomwe chili chotetezeredwa m'dziko lina chingakhale choletsedwa kapena chosakhalamo m'dziko lina. Kusintha kumeneku n’kwachikulu makamaka m'madera kumene lamulo la boma silimachotsa ulamuliro wa boma kapena kumene chitetezo cha boma chimafotokozedwa mopepuka. Chotulukapo ndicho ntchito yokonza ufulu wa anthu imene ingayambitse chisokosokonezo, kuwonjezera kuwonjezereka, ndi kusoŵa kwa anthu amene amakhala m’maboma okhala ndi chitetezo chochepa. Kwa aphunzitsi ndi ophunzira, mfundo imeneyi imasonyeza kufunika kwa kuzindikira osati kokha lamulo la boma komanso mkhalidwe wawo walamulo.

Kusintha ndale ndi Kusintha kwa Zipangizo

Maulamuliro andale ponse paŵiri pamiyezo ya boma ndi ya boma amayambukira kukhazikika kwa ufulu wa anthu. Kusintha kwa dongosolo la pulezidenti kungasinthe kusungitsa zinthu zofunika za makampani a boma monga Dipatimenti ya Chilungamo, Dipatimenti ya Maphunziro ya Ofesi ya Chigawo, ndi Aumetic Accomplication Option Commissiontion Commission. Pamlingo wa boma, kusintha kwa malamulo ndi kuyendetsa ufulu wa boma kungayambitse kukhazikitsa malamulo amene angakulitse kapena kuvomereza ufulu wa munthu aliyense payekha. Kusoŵa kwa chipatso cha mtanda cha chiwombankhaka, ufulu wobereka, LBTQ , ndi machinsinsi amapangitsa kuwonjezereka kwa lamulo lalamulo lamphamvu ndi njira za ndale zadziko zimene lamulo lingalimbitse kapena kuchirikiza kachitidwe kachitidwe ka boma.

Luso la Zaluso, Kudzibisa, ndi Malire a Malamulo Amene Alipo

Luso lamakono limayambitsa mavuto atsopano a malamulo a zachinsinsi a boma, kuyang'anira, ndi kupanga malamulo a malamulo osagwirizana ndi malamulo. Malamulo a zachinsinsi a boma amagawidwa, ndi malamulo apadera ophatikizapo mfundo zaumoyo (HIPAA), a zachuma (GLA), ndi a ana achinsinsi (COPPA), koma palibe chitetezo chachinsinsi cha boma. Maboma adzaza mpata. California, Virginia, ndi mayiko ena akhazikitsa malamulo ofotokoza bwino zachinsinsi za moyo amene amakhazikitsa malamulo a za mabizinesi (HIPAA), ndi kupatsa ufulu wa anthu pa mfundo zawo. Chifukwa chakuti malamulo a boma amenewa amasiyana, makampani amayang'anizana ndi mavuto, ndiponso chitetezo cha anthu achinsinsi chidziwitso cha boma. Kusokonezedwa kwa malamulo achinsinsi kwa boma. Maboma a Californiallugalamu alephera kukhazikitsa malamulo achinsinsi, koma asinthasinthasintha malo.

Maboma ena amafuna kuti pakhale malamulo oyendera pakompyuta, koma malamulo a boma amathandiza kuti anthu azikhala ndi ufulu woteteza zinthu zachinsinsi.

Mbali ya Makhoti a Boma m’Kutetezera Ufulu

Malamulo a boma ayamba kukhala ofunika kwambiri posamalira ufulu wa anthu. Pamene makhoti a boma amasulira malamulo a boma mocheperapo kapena pamene khoti Lapamwamba lamilandu la U.S. likhala lolamulira, khotilo lingapite ku malamulo awo kuti liteteze. Mchitidwe umenewu, wodziŵika kuti "Unistism yatsopano ya zalamulo," wagwiritsidwa ntchito kuteteza ufulu wa m'madera monga ngati kuchirikiza maphunziro, kufufuza ndi kulanda, kulankhula mwaufulu m’malo a masitolo, ndi kubereka. Khoti lalikulu silimayang'ana za boma pamene limaika zosankha zawo pambali ya boma lokha. Chiphunzitso chimenechi chimatanthauza kuti chitetezo cha ufulu wa anthu sichimakwera kapena kulephera kukwera ndi boma la boma.

Kumaliza: Njira Yolimba ndi Yoyesedwa

Kugwirizana kwa malamulo a boma ndi boma kumayambitsa kumanga kovuta kwambiri poteteza ufulu wa anthu ku United States. Lamulo la boma la Federal limakhazikitsa malo apamwamba a dzikolo, malamulo a boma amapereka mankhwala padera, ndipo malamulo a boma ndi malamulo amapereka mipata yofutukulira. Supremacy Claus imatsimikizira ulamuliro wa boma pamene mikangano ibuka, koma maboma amakhala ndi ulamuliro waukulu wowonjezera chitetezo m'malamulo awo. Dongosolo limeneli limapanga zonse ziŵirizo ndi kusinthasintha. Limalola kuti likhale ngati makompyuta oyesera ufulu, kuyesa njira zatsopano zopezera ufulu, kulingana, ndi njira zoyenerera.

Kwa aphunzitsi, ophunzira, ndi otomerana nzika, kuzindikira mphamvu imeneyi nkofunika kuti kuyendetsa zinthu kothandiza, kuyendera malo alamulo, ndi kutengamo mbali kwa boma. Chisudzo cha boma sichikhala chachikhalire; chimasintha ndi masankho onse, zigamulo zonse zalamulo, ndi chigamulo chilichonse cha chiweruzo. Kukhalabe wodziŵa za zochitika zonse m'boma ndi malamulo amene amalamulira nkofunika kwa aliyense wodzipereka kutetezera ufulu wa anthu. Dongosolo limatsutsidwa, komanso limavomereza.