Maziko a Ufulu wa Anthu Padziko Lonse: Cholowa Chokhalitsa cha Mlanduwo

Pamene kukonzanso khumi koyamba ku United States kwa kukhazikitsa malamulo a ufulu wa anthu. Pamene kuli kwakuti Boma la zoyenera linavomerezedwa mu 1791, linaimira kutha kwakukulu kwa malamulo a ulamuliro panthaŵi imeneyo. Kwanthaŵi yoyamba, boma lolamulira linachepetsa mphamvu za boma lalikululo kuti litetezere ufulu wa anthu. Pamene kuli kwakuti Boma la ufulu wachibadwidwe linakonzedwa kuti lipereke mfundo zenizeni za dziko la dziko latsopano, malamulo ake a ufulu wa kulankhula, ufulu wachipembedzo, kutetezera boma, ndi kuyenera kwa kuweruza milandu ya dziko lonse. M'zaka mazana aŵiri zapitazo, malingaliro ameneŵa aumba kwambiri malamulo a ufulu wa anthu, kuchokera ku chikalata cha Unikrea cha Unikonse cha Uniondo cha Union. Kuzindikira kwake kulephera kuchitika m'mbiri sikuli kongofunikira kuyesa kuweruza koyenera kuweruza milandu yosayeruzika.

Mlandu wa Ufulu: Chisinthiko

Kupangidwa kwa Bill of Rights kunali kopeka chifukwa cha nkhondo yaikulu ya ndale. Mkati mwa 1787 Convention ya Malamulo, nthumwi zambiri zinakhulupirira kuti lamulo la ufulu linali losafunikira chifukwa chakuti boma la boma linali lokhala ndi mphamvu zochepa, zoŵerengeka. Komabe, Anti-Federalist adatsutsa kuti popanda chitetezo chenicheni, boma latsopano lingakhale lopondereza. Kulolera kumene kunatsogolera kuwonjezera kusinthika. James Madison, poyamba wokayikira, anatsogolera kukonza zimene zinakhala Rigill of Rights, akujambula kwambiri pa Diviko la ufulu wachisanu ndi 76 ndi Chingelezi la Bill of Rights of 1689, monganso zaka mazana ambiri a lamulo lachizungu.

Chiyenso cha Olamulira Chikusintha zinthu ndi chimodzi. Mpambo woyamba umateteza mfundo zofunika kwambiri za anthu omasuka: chipembedzo, kulankhula, kusindikiza, kusonkhana, ndi kupempha. Malamulo achiŵiri ndi Achitatu amatchula apolisi ndi kuwonjezera milandu ya asilikali, kuonetsa zigawenga za atsamunda. Ndende zachisanu ndi chisanu zikhazikitsa ufulu wa oimbidwa mlandu ndi njira zachilungamo, kuphatikizapo kutetezera boma lopanda nzeru ndi kudwala, kuopsa kwa munthu mwini yekha, ndi chilango chankhanza ndi chachilendo. Mpando wa Ninth ndi Tenth Rendements zimagwira ntchito monga kumasulira mapulinsipulo, kutsimikizira kuti kugaŵikizidwa kwa ufulu wa ufulu wa anthu ena sikumakana kusungidwa ndi anthu ena, ndi kuti mphamvu zimene sizikuperekedwa ku boma la boma la anthu n’zonse. Onse pamodzi, zigawa zinapanga chiwenga chalamulo cha boma la boma la boma la anthu.

Malamulo Aakulu Amene Anasintha Chilamulo cha Padziko Lonse

Bill of Rights inayambitsa mfundo zingapo zimene pambuyo pake zinakhala maziko a ziŵiya za ufulu wa anthu padziko lonse. Choyamba, inakhazikitsa kuti ufulu wina unali wachibadwa ndipo sunali woletsedwa ndi boma ngakhale pamene panalibe lamulo lachindunji lowalola. Lingaliro limeneli la “ufulu wosalandirika” linabwereza Chikalata cha ufulu wa kudziimira pa ufulu wa anthu ndipo linagwidwa m'Chikalata cha Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Chachiŵiri, chinalenga malamulo ovomerezeka kwa anthu pa otsatsa malonda a boma / osati pa zolinga za makhalidwe. Chachitatu, linapereka njira yoperekera lamulo: anthu ena angatsutse ntchito za boma m’khoti. Kuphatikizana kwa ufulu wa ufulu wodzilamulira ndi malamulo ovomerezedwa kudzakhala chitsanzo cha mapangano a mayiko onse omwe anakhazikitsa anthu pa nthawi yapambuyo pake kuti aike anthu atakhala pamaso pa mabungwe a mayiko osiyanasiyana.

Mlanduwo wa Ufulu Wachibadwidwe ndi Kubadwa kwa Chikalata Cholengeza Ufulu wa Anthu Onse

Chisonkhezero chachindunji ndi chapadera koposa cha dziko lonse cha Bill of Rights chikuwoneka mu Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), yovomerezedwa ndi United Nations General Assembly mu 1948. Komiti yopanga mapulani, yotsogozedwa ndi Eleanor Roosevelt, inaphatikizapo oimira a miyambo yosiyanasiyana ya zamalamulo, koma choloŵa cha lamulo cha ku America chinali nsonga yaikulu yodziŵira. Roosevelt iyemwiniyo analongosola UDHR kukhala “Magna Carta".

Nkhani zingapo za UDHR zimaimira mwachindunji malamulo a Bill of Rights. Mfundo 18 ya UDHR imakhazikitsa ufulu wa kulingalira, chikumbumtima, ndi chipembedzo . Ndilo liwu lomveka la mawu a First Amendment. Mfundo 19 imateteza ufulu wa maganizo ndi mawu, kuphatikizapo ufulu wofuna, kulandira, ndi kupereka chidziŵitso. Mfundo 9 imaletsa kumangidwa, kutsekedwa, kapena kuthamangidwa, kulingana ndi chitetezo cha Gemeternerament cha Four pa kudwala kopanda nzeru. Mfundo 10 imatsimikizira kumveka bwino ndi komiti ya anthu yodziimira paokha, kuyenera kwa Kusintha kwa Kufulumira kwa Palamende, ndi kuweruza mlandu wapo. Mfundo 5 imaletsa kuzunza ndi nkhanza, kapena kuchitiridwa nkhanza, kapena kuchitiridwa nkhanza, kulangidwa mwachindunji ndi kuletsa chiletso chankhanza chankhanza cha Expmermy. Mfundo 10 imapereka mfundo 10 ndi chilango chankhanza ndi chilango chankhanza.

Okonza UDHR anali osamala kuphatikizapo ufulu wa zachuma, wa chikhalidwe ndi wa chikhalidwe (monga ngati kuyenera kwa kugwira ntchito, maphunziro, ndi chisungiko cha anthu) zimene zimapyola pa ufulu wachibadwidwe ndi wandale wa Bill of Rights . Komabe, kapangidwe ka UDHR kawonekedwe ka UDHR . Kuyang'anira za ufulu wa munthu aliyense payekha monga kupenda mphamvu ya boma kuli kopanda liwongo, monga momwe nkhanizo zinatsatidwira ndi dala ndi nkhani zina zolembedwazo kuti zikhale zoyenerera anthu onse.

Kutali ndi UDHR: Mapangano a Mitundu Yonse

Bill of Rights (ICESCR), onse aŵiri anatengedwa mu 1966. IUDHR, makamaka, imaŵerenga monga mapangano aŵiri a maziko a malamulo a ufulu wachibadwidwe a dziko lonse: International Parvene on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), ndi International Pangano pa za chuma, Social Rights (ICES 8), Imaletsa ukapolo (Article 8), kutetezera ndi chisungiko cha munthu (Atricle 9), kutsimikizira kuchitiridwa kwa anthu kwa mangawa (Atricle 9), kuperekedwa kwa ufulu wa anthu (Artle) ndi ufulu wa chiwomboko wa chiwonjezo wa nkhondo wodziwonda). Chiletso cha ufulu wa anthu (I. Chivomerezo chachikulu cha ufulu wa ufulu wa ufulu wa ufulu wa anthu (Artlelphicle) ndi kuwonjezera ku ufulu wa ufulu wa anthu (chiatsutsulo, kuwonjezera chivomezi chachikulu cha chivomezi chachikulu cha chivomezi cha chinza). Chikalata chakunja chakunja chakunja chakunja chakunja chaku

Kugwiritsa ntchito kwa ICCPR kwa Komiti ya Ufulu wa Anthu, imene imapenda malipoti a boma ndi madandaulo a munthu aliyense payekha . ICPR imasonyezanso njira ya ku America yoyang’anira ufulu wa anthu. Pamene kuli kwakuti Bill of Rights imadalira pa makhoti a m'dziko, ICPR imapanga bungwe lapadziko lonse lokhala ndi ulamuliro wa kutsutsa mafotokozedwe ndi zopezedwa. Kusintha kumeneku kunasintha lingaliro la dziko lonse la America la malamulo a ufulu wa anthu.

Kukhudza Zida Zomenyera Ufulu wa Anthu

Bill of Rights inatumikira monga njira yolunjika ya njira za ufulu wachibadwidwe zingapo za m’chigawo, makamaka ku Ulaya ndi ku America, ndipo mwa njira ina inasonkhezera dongosolo la mu Afirika.

Msonkhano wa ku Ulaya Wokhudza Ufulu wa Anthu

European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR), yovomerezedwa mu 1950 pansi pa kuperekedwa kwa bungwe la Council of Europe, imaonedwa mofala kukhala pangano lothandiza koposa la ufulu wachibadwidwe m’mbiri. Okonza mapangano ake, otengedwa ku mademokalase a ku Western Europe, anali ozoloŵerana kwambiri ndi bungwe la U.S. Bill of Rights. Mndandanda wa ECHR wa ufulu wotetezeredwa . Kuphatikizapo ufulu wa moyo, kuzunzidwa, kuyesedwa kwabwino, ufulu wa kulongosola, ndi ufulu wa chipembedzo, zomwe zinatengedwa ndi onse aŵiri UDHR ndi Bill of Rights. Mabungwe a ECH a ufulu wa anthu a ku Ulaya olinganizidwa kupereka anthu ndi ufulu wotsutsana ndi maboma awo, lingaliro limene limapendanso ufulu wa ku America pa malamulo a dziko lonse, pa malamulo a mayiko ambiri. Malamulo a Ulaya a bungwe la European Court (5).

Njira Yoloŵera ku America

Chikalata cha American Declaration of the Rights and Custitution of Man, chovomerezedwa mu 1948 (miyezi isanafike UDHR), chinali chikalata choyamba cha ufulu wa anthu padziko lonse chamakono. Chinasonkhezeredwa kwambiri ndi Bill of Rights. Chikalata cha American American Court of Human Rights, chokhazikitsidwa pansi pa American Convention on Rights (1969), chinagwirizanitsanso zitetezero zimenezi. Chikalata cha Convention cha ufulu wa anthu ndi ufulu wandale (1992), kuyenera kukhazikitsa ufulu wa munthu, kuyenerera kwa moyo, ufulu wa munthu, ufulu wa munthu ku ufulu ku ufulu waumwini, ufulu wa chikumbumtima, ufulu wa chikumbumtima ndi wa chipembedzo, ufulu wa kulingalira ndi ufulu, ufulu wa kuyenera, kusonkhana, ndi kukhazikika kwa kumanja kwa ufulu wa ufulu wa ufulu wa kudziko lonse, ndi mgwirizano wa kumanja kwa ufulu wa ufulu wa kumenyera ufulu wa dziko la United States.

Tchata cha mu Afirika cha Ufulu Waumunthu ndi wa Anthu

Chata ya African Charter (1981) imaphatikizapo ufulu wachiŵeniŵeni ndi wandale wopezeka m'Bill of Rights , monga kuyenera kwa kuzenga mlandu mwachilungamo, ufulu wa kulankhula, ndi ufulu wa chipembedzo . Koma imaziika m’dongosolo lalikulu lomwe limagogomezeranso ufulu wachigwirizano, ntchito, ndi kupita patsogolo kwa chuma. Pamene kuli kwakuti dongosolo la mu Afirika silinapangidwe mwachindunji mwachindunji ndi malamulo a U.S. kupambana kwa madongosolo a U European kapena Amereka, kuphatikiza kwake ufulu wa anthu kwa dziko lonse kumasonyeza kutembenuzidwa kwa dongosolo la malamulo a dziko la America, Alobe kutengera ku makhalidwe a dzikolo.

Mfundo Zazikulu Zimene Zinadutsa Malire

Mfundo zingapo zachindunji za m’buku la ufulu wachibadwidwe la Bill of Rights zakhala miyezo ya padziko lonse, iliyonse imakhala ndi ulendo wosiyana wochoka ku lamulo lalamulo la America kupita ku lamulo la ufulu wachibadwidwe la padziko lonse.

Ufulu wa Kulankhula ndi Mawu

The First Amendment’s protection of free speech has been enormously influential. The UDHR (Article 19), the ICCPR (Article 19), and the ECHR (Article 10) all protect freedom of expression. While international law permits more restrictions than U.S. law (e.g., prohibitions on hate speech, defamation, and incitement to violence are more common), the default presumption in favor of free speech—and the prohibition on prior restraint—is a direct legacy of the Bill of Rights. The landmark U.S. Supreme Court case New York Times Co. v. Sullivan (1964), which established robust protections for criticism of public officials, has influenced the European Court of Human Rights’ approach to political speech.

Kutetezedwa Kuti Asazunzidwe Ndiponso Kuti Asalandire Chilango Chankhanza

Chiletso cha Eleah Amendment cha kuletsa “kuphwanya malamulo ndi chilango chachilendo” chinali chiletso choyamba cha lamulo choyambirira choletsa kuzunza ndi kuzunza kopanda chilungamo ndi boma. Lamulo limeneli tsopano lalembedwa mu UDHR (Article 5), ICPPR (Article 7), Convention Against Torture (19984), ndi zida zambiri za chigawo. Lamulo lakhala lamulo la malamulo a mitundu yonse ( magnos ) kuchokera ku chimene sichimaloledwa, ngakhale panthaŵi ya nkhondo kapena yamwadzidzidzi. Chiletso cha kuletsa kuzunza anthu (19984), chifukwa cha dziko lonse lapansi la chitetezo chosakhala ndi ufulu wa ku America umene iwo sangakhale woyenerera kutha kupambana.

Kuyenera kwa Kuzengedwa Mlandu Mwachilungamo

Bill of Rights ikutsimikizira kuyenera kwa oimbidwa mlandu: kuyenera kwa kuweruza mofulumira ndi kwa anthu onse (Sixth Amendment), kuyenera kwa oweruza opanda tsankho (Sixth Amendment), kuyenera kwa kupereka uphungu (Sixth Amendment), kutetezera ku ngozi ziŵiri (Indandasishoni), ndi kuyenera motsutsana ndi kulakwa kwa munthu mwini (Indandasishoni ya Malamulo). Malamulo ameneŵa apangidwa padziko lonse kupyolera mwa Mfundo 14 ya ICICPR, imene imaphatikizapo kuyenera kwa kuweruza kolungama, kuyenera kwa kupatsidwa mlandu, kuyenera kwa kudziŵitsidwa kwa milandu, kuyenera kwa nthaŵi yoyenera ndi zipata chotetezera, kuyenera kwa kuyang’anira moyenerera, kupenda mboni, ndi kuyenera kwa kuchonderera kwa lamulo. Khoti la International Crimina ndi ku Rwanda, la ku Rwanda.

Ufulu wa Chipembedzo

Chikalata chowonjezera chija cha Free Execrect Claus ndi Council Classia, kukhazikitsa chitsanzo chapadera cha ku America cha kulekana kwa tchalitchi ndi boma ndi ufulu wachipembedzo. Padziko lonse, UDHR (Article 18), ICPR (Article 18), ndi Chikalata cha Kuchotsa Malamulo a Malo Onse Ololera ndi Opatsirana ndi Kukhulupirira Chilango (19981) chimateteza ufulu wokhala ndi ufulu wokhala nawo, kuvomereza, kuvomereza chipembedzo kapena chikhulupiriro. Pamene kuli kwakuti maiko ambiri savomereza kulekana kwenikweni kwa tchalitchi ndi boma lopezeka mu U.S., mfundo yaikulu ya ufulu wa chikumbumtima ndi kulambira imadziŵika padziko lonse kukhala chotulukapo cha mphamvu ya Bill ya ufulu wa ufulu wa ufulu wa ufulu wa anthu.

Zolephera ndi Kusintha

Kungakhale konyenga kunena kuti Bill of Rights anangokopera ku malamulo a dziko lonse. Pali kusiyana kwakukulu. Bill of Rights poyamba inagwira ntchito ku boma lokha, osati ku maboma a boma (amene anasintha ndi kukhazikitsa Kombo la 149). Lamulo la padziko lonse la ufulu wa anthu, poyerekezera ndi, limagwira ntchito mwachindunji ku maboma onse. Bill of Rights siiphatikizapo ufulu wa anthu, umene uli wofunika kwambiri ku ziŵiya za mayiko. Likulu la ufulu wa ufulu wachibadwidwe (Fifth Amend Regamed Rimes the Eviences Claus) lilibe lopanda chilo cholo chachindulira mwachindunji m'mapangano a ufulu wa anthu padziko lonse. Ndipo Bill of Rights Rightsism sinatengedwe pa kusakhulupirira ufulu wa dziko lonse, pamene lamulo la mayiko lonse likufuna kuchitapo kanthu kuti ufulu wa dziko lonse.

Ndiponso, Bill of Rights inalandiridwa m'chitaganya chimene chinkachita ukapolo, kukana akazi kuvota, ndi kuchepetsa ufulu wa kukhala ndi amuna achiyera. Gulu la padziko lonse la ufulu wachibadwidwe, pamene likusonkhezeredwa ndi chitsanzo cha ku America, layesayesa kugonjetsa malire a mbiri yakale ameneŵa mwa kutsatira mfundo za padziko lonse, zopanda tsankho, ndi kusazindikira zoyenera zonse. UDHR ananena kuti ufulu umagwira ntchito kwa “mabanja onse a anthu.

Kunyadira ndi Kupitirizabe Kukumana ndi Mavuto

Lerolino, Bill of Rights idakalibe malo enieni odziŵira ufulu wa anthu padziko lonse. Pamene ochirikiza ufulu wa ufulu wa kusonkhana mu Hong Kong afuna ufulu, pamene atolankhani ku Mexico akumenyera kutetezeredwa ndi kuyang'anira, pamene akaidi ku Russia akutsutsa mikhalidwe ya kuzunza, iwo akupempha malamulo amene amatsatira kumbuyo kwa 1791. Khoti Lapamwamba la U.S. la Likulu la ufulu wa anthu likupitirizabe kukonza nkhani zalamulo padziko lonse. Mwachitsanzo, zosankha za khoti pankhani ya zachinsinsi (m. g., [FLT:] Ry v. California[FLD:1], 2014, kufuna malamulo a kutetezera malamulo a m'malisechewa.

Komabe chisonkhezerocho sichiri chimodzi. Lamulo la ufulu wa anthu lapadziko lonse lasonkhezeranso United States kupendanso machitachita ake. ICPR, imene U.S. inavomerezedwa ndi zitsutso mu 1992, yatsogolera ku kupenda kwa apa ndi apo ndi Komiti ya Ufulu wa Anthu imene imagogomezera madera kumene lamulo la U.S. limalephera, monga ngati kusiyanitsa mafuko pa chiweruzo cha upandu, machitidwe a kutsekera ku Guantanamo Bay, ndi chilango cha imfa. Zimenezi zikusonyeza kuti Bill of Rights siingochokera ku chisonkhezero komanso mbali ya kukambitsirana kopitirizabe kwa tanthauzo la ufulu wa anthu m'dziko losintha.

Kumaliza

Bill of Rights inapanga chikalata cha nthaŵi yake .A chakumapeto kwa zaka 18 zapakati pa dziko lapansi chimene chinapanga maziko a ufulu m'dziko latsopano. Komabe akatswiri ake sanayembekezere kuti ntchito yawo tsiku lina idzakhala chitsanzo cha dziko lonse. Kupyolera pa Chikalata cha Universal Declaration of Human Rights, International Convention on Civil and Polistical Rights, ndi madongosolo a chigawo ku Ulaya, America, ndi Afirika, malamulo a ufulu wa kulankhula mwaufulu, kuyesa kolungama, ufulu wa chipembedzo, ndi chitetezo ku kuzunza zakhala chinenero chofala cha ufulu wa anthu. Bill of Rights Rights Declation , iwo sanapangirepo malingaliro akale m'filosofi ndi chipembedzo cha m'mbuyomu chikaperekabe mapangano a zachiweruzo omwe anatsimikizira kukhala olanditsidwa mwalamulo. Pamene magulu a anthu akuyang’anizana ndi mavuto atsopano kuyang’anira ufulu wa ufulu wa kulanda ufulu wa anthu.