Maziko a Lamulo a Kachitidwe Koyenera

Lamulo la lamulo la ku America la lamulo lachisanu, lovomerezedwa mu 1791 monga mbali ya Bill of Rights, limalengeza kuti palibe munthu amene adzakhala "wopasuka pa moyo, ufulu, kapena katundu, popanda njira yoyenerera ya lamulo. Mtengo wa 144th Amendment, umene unagwiritsidwa ntchito mu 1868, unawonjezera chitetezo chimodzimodzichi pa maboma a boma, kutsimikizira kuti palibe boma limene lingapereke " munthu aliyense wa moyo, ufulu, kapena katundu, popanda lamulo. Zimenezi zimapangitsa kuti zinthu zikhale ngati kuyenera kuteteza katundu.

Chofunika si njira yoikidwiratu ya malamulo koma muyezo wosinthika umene umafuna chilungamo chachikulu. Khoti Lapamwamba lakhala ndi mbiri yosiyana pakati pa mitundu iŵiri: mwa kulongosola njira zoyenerera , imene imakhudza masitepe a boma asanayambe kulanda munthu katundu, ndipo njira yoyenerera yochitira zinthu, ndi kumvetsera, ndi kupanga chosankha chosakondera.

Woweruza Felix Frankfurter ananena kuti "kutsatira lamulo sikuli chabe mawu a tanthauzo losiyana. Ndi lingaliro lakuti "kuimira mkhalidwe wakuya wa chilungamo pakati pa munthu ndi munthu, ndi pakati pa boma ndi olamuliridwa. Lingaliro limeneli la maziko limatsimikizira kuti boma silingagwire ntchito monga woweruza, woweruza milandu, ndi wakupha pamene litenga chuma chaumwini.

Mitundu ya Chuma cha Boma

Boma limalanda katundu makamaka m’magulu atatu: ufumu wotchuka , chuma chotayidwa , ndi m’makoswe . Chilichonse chimagwira ntchito pansi pa malamulo osiyanasiyana koma zonse n’zofunika kukwaniritsa malire.

Kulemba Nyimbo ndi Kugwiritsidwa Ntchito Pagulu

Demetriyo yachisanu imaphatikizapo kuchotsa Claus: "Kupanda chuma chaumwini chidzatengedwa kaamba ka kugwiritsira ntchito kwa anthu, popanda malipiro. Boma lingalande katundu kaamba ka chifuno cha anthu [1] monga ngati misewu yomanga, masukulu, kapena mapaki [1] Kuperekedwa kwake kumapindulitsa mtengo wabwino wa malonda. Mchitidwe wofunika kwambiri umakhudza ngati kugwidwa ndi njirisiko kulidi ntchito yapoyera [[[FLT:] ndi ngati mwiniyo alandira chidziŵitso chokwanira ndi mwaŵi wakupikisana ndi mtengo wake.

Nkhani yochititsa chidwi Kelo v. Mzinda wa New London [1] (2005) inafutukula kwambiri mafotokozedwe a ntchito ya anthu. Khoti Lapamwamba linasunga 5-4 kuti kupita patsogolo kwa zachuma kukhale koyenerera monga ntchito ya anthu onse, kulola mzinda kutengera nyumba za munthuwe pa ntchito ya malonda. Woweruza John Paul Stevens analembera anthu ambiri kuti "chigamulo cha mzindawo chinali chovuta kwambiri kuvomereza kuti chitukuko chinali ndi mphamvu yololera kuchepetsa kukonza kwake. Chigamulocho chinachititsa kuti dzikolo lisiye malamulo ndi kutsogolera mayiko ambiri kuletsa malo apamwamba a malonda kuti apeze phindu la zachuma. Choona, Concticut , pambuyo pake analetsa ntchito ya .

Mosiyana, Loretto v. Teleprompter Manhattan CatV Corp . (19982) adalemba ntchito yachikhalire ya katundu. Khoti Lapamwamba linagamula kuti ngakhale bokosi laling'ono la ntambo loikidwa pa nyumba linapanga kufunikira kulipiridwa, kugogomezera lamulo lakuti kuukira kwachikhalire kulikonse kwa thupi kumaswa zonse ziŵiri kuchotsapo ku Teas Clausse ndi zitetezero zoyenerera.

Kusoŵa Zinthu Zapachiŵeniŵeni

Kulandidwa katundu wa boma kumalola boma kulanda katundu wolingaliridwa kukhala wophatikizidwa m'machitachita upandu . Muyezo walamulo uli wodziŵika bwino [[FLT: 0] chochititsa cholakwika kuti katunduyo ali wogwirizana ndi khalidwe losakhala la lamulo, mtolo wotsika kwambiri kuposa wokayikitsa woyenerera muyezo waupandu. Otsutsa dongosolo lino likuwononga njira yoyenerera chifukwa chakuti katundu angatengedwe mozikidwa pa kukayikirana, ndipo kaŵirikaŵiri mwiniwake amayang'anizana ndi njira yokwera mtengo ndi yoibwezera.

Khoti Lapamwamba linafotokoza zofunika zofunikira za ntchito zokaikiridwa mu United States v. James Daniel Good Real Implety (1993). Khotilo linavomereza kuti boma silingalande katundu weniweni mwa kulephera kulowa m'boma popanda kupereka chilengezo ndi mpata wa kugamula mlandu. Woweruza Anthony Kennedy analemba kuti "Kuyenera kudziŵidwa kusanachitike ndi kumvetsera kuli kofunika kwambiri ku lamulo la malamulo a malamulo. Chigamulo chinachepetsa ntchitoyo koma sichinalichotse; kulephera kuperekedwa kwa chiŵiya champhamvu cha lamulo ndi lamulo.

Posachedwapa, Caperton v. A.T. Massay Coal . (2009), pamene kuli kwakuti si mlandu wolanda, inagogomezera kuti njira yoyenera ikufuna kuti oweruza akhale opanda tsankho [1] lamulo limene limawonjezera kutaya ntchito zimene boma limapereka kwa oweruza ndi kulandira katundu.

Msonkho ndi Mabodza

IRS ingalande katundu wolipirira msonkho wosalipidwa pansi pa ulamuliro wa bungwe la Internal Revenue Council . Pamene kuli kwakuti kudwala msonkho kumachitidwa pa ntchito yoyenerera, Khoti Lapamwamba lakhala likugamula kuti boma lingatole msonkho popanda chidziŵitso ngati kuli kofunika kuletsa kusudzulidwa. Komabe, mwiniwakeyo amalandira chidziŵitso chapostseratu ndi ufulu wa kumvetsera. Nkhani ya [[FLT:] Filips v. Kazembe wa Internern Inve [FLT:] (1931)) anachirikiza kusonkha msonkho wopeka koma chifukwa chakuti kumvetsera kotsatira kunalipo. Msonkhoma wamakono umafunikira kuti aperekere [[FLD:] Mpando wa Lev [FFF:] ndi mpata wa [FT]

Chiyeneretso ndi Kumva

Malo apakati operekera ku kulinganiza ndiko chiyeneretso chimene boma limapereka chidziŵitso chokwanira ndi kumveka kwatanthauzo [ asanachotse munthu katundu. Khoti Lapamwamba mu Mulrane v. Central Hanover Bank & Trust Co. )) anatsimikizira kuti kuyenera kukhala "mwambo, pansi pa mikhalidwe yonse, kutumiza zikondwerero za ntchito yochitidwa ndi kuwapatsa mpata wopereka kutsutsa kwawo. Zimenezi zimatanthauza kufalitsa kofala kwa boma ngati mwini wa boma akudziŵa.

Mu Fuentes v. Shevin [FLT :1] (1972], Bwalo Lamilandu linagwetsa lamulo la Florida lomwe linalola anthu aumwini kutenga katundu wa m’nyumba popanda kumvedwa. Woumba Waumboni Stewart analemba kuti "kuyenera kumvedwa sikumadalira pa kusonyeza pasadakhale kuti munthu adzapambana pazoyenera. Chigamulocho chinalimbikitsa kuti ngakhale chuma cha kanthaŵi chikafuna kugamulidwa popanda mikhalidwe yolakwika.

Muyezo wamakono wolinganiza zinthu za boma ndi ufulu wa katundu ndi uja Mathews v. Eldidge Kuyesa [1997]. Khoti linafotokoza zinthu zitatu:

  1. Chikondwerero chaumwini chinayambukiridwa ndi kachitidwe kalamulo.
  2. Upandu wa kumanidwa zinthu kolakwika mwa njira zamakono ndi phindu la zotetezera zowonjezereka.
  3. Chikondwerero cha boma, kuphatikizapo katundu wa ndalama ndi wa maulamuliro wa njira zowonjezereka.

Kusamalira nyumba kumafuna kutetezedwa kwambiri kuposa kulanda galimoto imene ikulingaliridwa kukhala yogulitsa mankhwala ogodomalitsa. Boma liyenera kulinganiza njira zake ndi kuwopsa kwa kusoŵako.

Zolekanitsidwa pa Kuzindikira ndi Kumva Kusanakhale

Ngakhale kuti nthaŵi zambiri pamafunika kuti munthu adziwitse kaye kuti wamva zimene akuuzidwazo, nthaŵi zambiri pamakhala zinthu zina zimene boma lizidziŵa kuti litha kulanda katundu wake choyamba ndi kukonzanso zinthuzo pambuyo pake.

Mikhalidwe Yosadziŵika

Ngati pali chiwopsezo cha mwamsanga chakuti katunduyo adzawonongedwa, kuchotsedwa, kapena kugwiritsiridwa ntchito kaamba ka ntchito yowonjezereka yaupandu, apolisi angaulande popanda chilolezo kapena asanamve. Mwachitsanzo, kuwonongeka kwa galimoto kumene kuli pafupi kuwonongedwa kungagwiritsidwe ntchito mopambanitsa. Khoti mu Carroll v. United States (1925) choyamba anazindikira galimoto, kulola kuti kufunafuna galimoto kosavomerezedwa ndi lamulo ngati kuli chifukwa chake, chifukwa cha kuyenda kwake.

Lingaliro Lomveka

Ngati ofesala alipo mwalamulo ndipo awona umboni kapena kubisa m'chiwonekere, iwo angautenge popanda chilolezo. Khoti Lapamwamba mu Horton v. California (1990) inafotokoza kuti ofesala ayenera kukhala ndi ufulu wa kupezeka ku chinthucho, mchitidwe wa kugamula ayenera kukhala wowonekera mwamsanga, ndipo chopezedwacho chiyenera kukhala chosasinthika. Chiphunzitso chimenechi sichimathetsa njira yoyenerera koma chimaimitsa kuzenga mlanduwo ku ku kubwereranso.

Zokometsera pasadakhale

M'nkhani zina zachiŵeniŵeni, okongoletsa angapeze lamulo la khoti la kutenga katundu asanaweruze ngati wokongolayo angathaŵe kapena kubisa chuma. M’''AUTCUT v. Doehr (1991]) adakhulupirira kuti zisonkhezero zotero zimafuna kuweruzidwa ngati mikhalidwe yeniyeni isanakhalepo, chotero kutsendereza njira zotetezera m’malo ameneŵa.

Mbiri Yakale ndi Chisinthiko

Lingaliro la kulinganiza koyenera linayamba ku Magna Carta (1215), limene linatsimikizira kuti "padzakhala munthu waufulu aliyense adzagwidwa kapena kuikidwa m’ndende... kusiyapo mwa chiweruzo chalamulo cha anthu ake kapena mwa lamulo la dziko. Aakantina a ku America anali kudziŵa bwino za kugwidwa ndi katundu wodzifunira mu ulamuliro wa Britain, kuphatikizapo zilolezo zachisawawa ndi chithandizo chachikulu chogwiritsiridwa ntchito kusungitsa malamulo a malonda. Malamulo achina ndi Owonjezera anali olunjika a zidzulo zimenezi.

Mkati mwa zaka za zana la 19, Bwalo Lapamwamba linaika njira yofunikira kwakukulukulu ku nkhani za procedro. Slaughter- Nyumba Cases (1873) poyamba inaletsa kugwiritsiridwa ntchito kwa Kusintha kwa Zamphumphu kwa 147, koma pambuyo pake zosankha zonga chiChicago, Burlington & Lamp; Quincy Railroad Co. v Chicago [1] [18FLT:19] inaphatikizapo kuchotsa Classie ndi maboma, kufutukulidwa kwa njira zotetezera katundu.

Zaka za zana la 20 zinakhala ndi kuwonjezereka kodabwitsa kwa njira yofunikira ya kugwidwa ndi katundu kupyolera m’Nkhokwe ya Warren ndi Burger Court, kukhazikitsa dongosolo lamakono la chidziŵitso, kumvetsera, ndi kutsimikiza kopanda tsankho.

Kutsatira Maulamuliro a Boma

Kutsatira njira yoyendera maufumu kwa boma. Kumakakamiza boma kuchepetsa, kupereka chidziŵitso, ndi kulungamitsa zochita zake asanatenge chuma . Kulephera kumeneku kumasonyeza kusadalirana kwa mphamvu zamphamvu. James Madison analemba m'Federalist Na. 10 kuti kutetezera zoyenera za katundu kunali chifuno chachikulu cha Malamulo, ndipo njira yoyenerera ndiyo njira yotetezera imeneyo.

Chiyeneretso cha kuweruza munthu asananyamuke chimapangitsa kutsutsa mwamphamvu zochita zauchigawenga. Monga momwe khotilo linanenera mu Fantis , "kuyenera kumvedwa kukakhala kopanda phindu ngati kumva kukanazengereza ku nthaŵi zonse. Kufuna boma kunyamula umboni asanatenge katundu, kumatsimikizira kuti zolakwa zachepetsedwa.

Kufufuza kwamakono kwasonyeza kuti pafunikira kulimba kwa njira zofunikira kaamba ka kutayikiridwa ndi boma . Konga ngati kufuna kugamulidwa kwa upandu asanalakwe pomalizira / kuona nkhanza zochepera ndi mlingo wochepera wa kupikisana. Maboma ena apanga masinthidwe otsatiridwa pa maprinsipulo oyenera, monga ngati kufuna boma kutsimikizira mwa umboni wotsimikizirika ndi wokhutiritsa kuti chuma chimatayidwa, mmalo mwa chochititsa chothekera.

Boma limakhala ndi mphamvu zotha kulanda katundu pa nthawi ya ngozi, pochita kafukufuku wokhudza anthu onse, ndiponso pochita umbanda.

Kuvomereza ndi Zoyesayesa za Kusintha Zochitidwa ndi Malamulo

Kulimbana pakati pa ntchito ya boma yogwira bwino ntchito ndi njira yofunikira yaumwini kwachititsa nkhondo zopitirizabe za malamulo. Kuyankha ku Kelo , maboma 44 anakhazikitsa malamulo oletsa malo otchuka kuti apange chuma. Malamulo ameneŵa kaŵirikaŵiri amafuna kusonyezedwa kowonjezereka kwa anthu onse ndi kulipidwa kokulira kwa eni ake othaŵa kwawo.

Pa kutayikiridwa kwa boma, maboma ambiri afuna kuti apeze chitsimikizo cha upandu katundu asanatayike. Chigamulo cha Khoti Lalikulu mu Ianco v. Brunetti [[FLT:] [2029] adatenga malo osiyana ndi kulembetsa kwa kaonedwe ka zinthu (kapena kuti kusaloŵerera m’malamulo a boma kukhudzanso ufulu wa katundu. Mabungwe ambiri analingalira za kuyenera kwa katundu [[FLT: 4.] Deterriced Inftiontiontiontiontion of Declation of Conservective Compultive and Seizs (DUPUCES) Chikalata [FF.FFF:] mu 2023, chimene chikada chikaonekera bwino kwambiri kwa umboni wa bungwe la Grolegineast ndi kusasintha.

Pamlingo wa boma, Msonkhano wa National Conference of State Legislatures sufuna kusintha . Pa 2025, 14 maboma amafuna chigamulo cha upandu asanatayike, kuyambira pa aŵiri okha mu 2010. Masinthidwe ameneŵa amazikidwa mwachindunji pa nkhani zofunikira: eni katundu sayenera kutaya katundu wawo popanda kutsimikiziridwa kukhala ndi liwongo lomveka.

Kumaliza: Kusintha Kotsatira Njira Yofunika

Malamulo a boma adakali oletsa kwambiri ulamuliro wa boma m’nthaka. Pamene kuli kwakuti boma lili ndi zolinga zoyenerera zolimbana ndi upandu, kusonkhanitsa ndalama, ndi kuchirikiza zinthu za boma, silingakwaniritse zolinga zimenezi mwa kugwiritsa ntchito chilungamo chachikulu. Malamulo a Lachisanu ndi Lachinayi amatsimikizira kuti katundu satengedwa mwamwambo kapena mwamwambo.

Pamene luso la zopangapanga likusintha (kulola kudwala khunyu la magetsi, kulephera kwa chinsinsi, ndi kuwonongeka kwa zinthu zolembedwa ndi chinsinsi cha zinthu zomwe zikubedwa [1] zija zidzapitirizabe kugwiritsa ntchito njira zofunikira. Mfundo zachikhalidwe zikutsala: kuzindikira, kumva, kusakondera, ndi kulinganiza. Okhala ndi ufulu umenewu angadzitetezere okha ku boma lopanda kuchenjeredwa.

Kuŵerenga kowonjezereka, [[FLT: 0] Project ya ntchito yoyenerera ya milandu imapereka kulongosoledwa kwatsatanetsatane kwa zigamulo zazikulu za Khoti Lalikulu. Cornell Legal Information Institute's yoyenerera [ imapereka chitsogozo chalamulo chokwanira. Potsirizira pake, Dipatimenti ya zoweruza pa malo otchuka imalongosola ntchito yamakono ya bungwe la boma.