Chiyambi: Thanthwe la Ufulu Waumwini

Lingaliro la njira yoyenerera limakhala limodzi la machinjirizo okhalitsa kwambiri ndi ofunika kwambiri pa ntchito ya boma yodziimira pa anthu a demokrase. Ndilo lamulo lalamulo limene limafuna boma kulemekeza ufulu walamulo kwa munthu, kutsimikizira kuti palibe munthu aliyense amene walandidwa moyo, ufulu, kapena chuma popanda njira zolungama ndi zovomerezeka. Kwa aphunzitsi, ophunzira, akatswiri a zamalamulo, ndi odzipereka pa nzika, kuzindikira mmene njira yoyenerera iyenera kugwirira ntchito pomvetsa kuyenera kwa mphamvu pakati pa boma ndi munthu aliyense payekha. Popanda njira yoyenera, ulamuliro wa boma umasalamulitsidwa, ndipo ufulu wa anthu opanda mphamvu zandale kapena mphamvu ya anthu. Kwawo, ophunzira, akatswiri a za malamulowo, amakhala osavuta kutengera zofuna zawo. Chifukwa chake si chiphunzitso cha lamulo lalamulo; ndiko ndi kukwaniritsa lamulo, ndi kuvomereza lamulo.

Chitetezero pa ntchito ya boma yodzifunira chaikidwa m'malamulo a United States kudzera pa Malamulo a Chisanu ndi 14, amene amaletsa boma kuletsa munthu aliyense wa moyo, ufulu, kapena katundu popanda lamulo. Komabe tanthauzo ndi kugwiritsidwa ntchito kwa mawu ameneŵa zatsutsana, zowongoleredwa, ndi kufutukulidwa kwa zaka mazana ambiri a kumasulira kwalamulo. Nkhaniyi imapereka kusanthula kokwanira kwa njira yake, kulondola mizu yake ya mbiri yakale, kulongosola mitundu yake iŵiri yaikulu ya moyo, ndi maluso ake aŵiri otsalira ndi audindo lapamwamba .

Maziko a Mbiri Yakale a Zotsatirapo Zake

Magna Carta ndi Mwambo wa Chilamulo Chachisawawa cha Chingelezi

Chiyambi cha ntchito yoikika chingalondoledwe kuyambira m'chaka cha 1215, pamene atsogoleri a Chingelezi anakakamiza Mfumu John kusaina Magna Carta ku Runnymede. Pamene kuli kwakuti Magna Carta kaŵirikaŵiri amakondedwa monga tchata cha ufulu wa demokrase, chinali pangano la mtendere pakati pa mfumu ndi nduna zake zopanduka. Komabe, linali ndi makonzedwe amene akanena m’zaka mazana ambiri za kutukuka kwa lamulo: Chaputa 39 chinalengeza kuti "Palibe munthu waufulu adzagwidwa kapena kumangidwa, kapena kuchotsedwa ufulu wake kapena chuma, kapena kulandidwa kwa kuikidwa kwake koletsedwa, kapena kulandidwa kwa kaimidwe kake m’njira ina iriyonse, kapena kupitirizabe ndi mphamvu yotsutsana naye, kapena kutumiza ena kuchita tero, kusiyapo chiweruzo chololedwa cha anthu kapena lamulo la dziko lake logwirizana ndi lamulo. Chiganichi china chinakhala chigani cha " chiganitso cha dziko lamakono" chiganitso cha chigani cha dziko la" chiganitso cha"

Magna Carta anatchulidwanso ndi kutsimikiziridwa nthaŵi zambiri m'zaka za zana la khumi ndi limodzi ndi lachinayi, ndipo malamulo ake analoŵetsedwa pang’onopang’ono m'mwambo wa lamulo la Chicheŵa. Mawuwo "kuyambira ku lamulo" choyamba anawonekera m'lamulo la Mfumu Edward III, lomwe linapereka kuti "munthu aliyense wa malo kapena mkhalidwe uliwonse, asachotsedwe m'maiko ake kapena kumangidwa, kapena kuikidwa m’ndende, kapena kuchotsedwa, kapena kuphedwa, popanda kuyankhidwa ndi njira yalamulo yoyenerera. Chigamutso chimenechi chinafotokoza kuti "lamulo la dziko" lisanafunikire boma, likhoza kulanda munthu ufulu wake. Mngelezi, zinakula ziyenerozo zachitsozo, kuphatikizapo kuyenera, kuyankha mlandu, ndi kuweruza kwa kuyenera, ndi kuweruza mlandu.

Kulanda Dziko ndi Kukula kwa Chisinthiko

Angelezi atsata mwambo walamulo ku North America, ndipo lingaliro la kuyendetsa zinthu linakhazikika kwambiri m'malamulo a maiko a America. Malamulo a boma ndi malamulo akale kaŵirikaŵiri anali kuphatikizapo makonzedwe otsimikizira kuti palibe munthu amene angachotsedwe moyo, ufulu, kapena chuma kusiyapo lamulo la dzikolo. Zokumana nazo za ulamuliro wa Britain m'zaka makumi ambiri zotsogolera ku Chipanduko cha America, ngakhale kuli tero, zinasonyeza mmene chitetezo chimenechi chikatsutsidwira mosavuta. Nyumba ya malamulo ya Britain ya msonkho popanda kuimira atsata atsamunda, kugwiritsiridwa ntchito kwa ndunazo zimene zinalola akuluakulu a boma kufunafuna nyumba yawo popanda chifukwa chake, ndi kutsendereza milandu ya a a khoti m'malamulo m'nkhani zina zinaimira zimene oweruza mapolokonesi onse analingalira kuti boma azichita mwachinyengo.

Chilengezo cha Kudziimira paokha chinandandalika poyera zidzudzulo zimenezi zotsutsana ndi Mfumu George III, kuphatikizapo "kutipatsa ife m'nkhani zambiri za mapindu a Kuzengedwa mlandu ndi Jury" ndi "kutembenuza ife kumbuyo kwa Nyanja kuti tiyesedwe kuyesa kuswa mlandu. Kulakwa kumeneku sikunali kokha kuswa malamulo alamulo; kunali zochitika zenizeni za mphamvu yodzisankhira imene inasonkhezera opanga chigamulo cha boma kukhazikitsa boma lolamulidwa ndi lamulo. Pamene Malamulo analembedwa mu 1787, ngakhale kuli tero, kusoŵa kwake kwa ufulu. Kuleka kumeneku kunakhala nsonga yaikulu ya mkangano mkati mwa kutsutsana kwa malamulo a malamulo, kutsogolera ku lonjezo lakuti chilolezo cha ufulu wa oyenerera chikawonjezeredwa monga lamulo loyamba la malonda pansi pa boma latsopano.

Malamulo a Nachisanu ndi 14

Demendulo lachisanu, lovomerezedwa monga mbali ya Bill of Rights mu 1791, imapereka momvekera bwino kuti "Palibe munthu amene adzachotsedwa moyo, ufulu, kapena katundu, popanda njira yoyenerera ya lamulo. Makonzedwe ameneŵa anagwira ntchito kokha ku boma la boma, kusonyeza chikhulupiriro cha olemba mafomuwo chakuti chiwopsezo chachikulu cha ufulu wa munthu aliyense chinachokera ku boma ladzikolo mmalo mwa maboma. Kwa zaka zambiri za zana la 19.

Kuikidwa kwa Demetrition ya 144 mu 1868, pambuyo pa Nkhondo ya Chiŵeniŵeni, kunasintha kwambiri mkhalidwe wa lamulo loyenera. Chigawo 1 cha kukonza chimapereka kuti "Palibe Boma lililonse lomwe lidzapanga kapena kukhazikitsa lamulo limene lidzatsekereza mwaŵi kapena kuteteza nzika za United States; ndiponso Boma lililonse silidzalanda munthu aliyense moyo, ufulu, kapena chuma, popanda dongosolo la lamulo; kapena kukana kwa munthu aliyense wokhala ndi ulamuliro wake kutetezera malamulo ofanana,. Chinenero chimenechi chinapereka lamulo loyenera ku boma, kulenga muyezo wa dziko lonse la kulungamo chimene chikakhala maziko a zitoko za lamulo zopikitsa m'lamulo.

Kumasulira kwa Lamulo la 14 la Acts Claus la Administ la Administ's Accommunice kwakhala nkhani yaikulu m'mbiri yonse ya America. Akatswiri ena ndi oweruza atsutsa kuti cholinga chachikulu chinali kuteteza akapolo omasulidwa chatsopano ku malamulo a boma, pamene kuli kwakuti ena aona kuti ndi chikalata chachikulu cha ufulu wa munthu aliyense payekha chimene chimaphatikizapo chitetezo cha Bill of Rights pa maboma. Khoti Lapamwamba linavomereza lingaliro lomaliziralo mwa chiphunzitso cha kulowa m’dziko, chimene chagwiritsira ntchito mbali yaikulu ya Bill of Rights ku boma kudzera mwa Claus Ce of the 144th Reformation Reformation.

Zipilala Ziwiri Zimene Zinkafunika Kuzitsatira

Zimene Zimachitika: Kupanga Zosankha Zachilungamo za Boma

Kulinganiza koyenera ndi mbali ya njira yofunikira imene imakhudza njira zimene boma liyenera kutsatira asanamane munthu moyo, ufulu, kapena katundu. Kuli kwenikweni kulungama m'kachitidwe ka boma kopanga zosankha, kutsimikizira kuti anthu alandire chidziŵitso chokwanira ndi mwaŵi wakumva boma lisanachitepo kanthu kovulaza zikondwerero zawo. Funso lalikulu m'chochitika chilichonse choyenera ndi ili: Kodi ndi njira yotani imene ili yoyenerera? Yankho limadalira pa mtundu wa chiwongola dzanjalo chimene chili pamtengo, kusoŵa kwa njira zoyendetsera zolondola, ndi chiwongola dzanja la boma lachithandizo cha boma pa kayendetsedwe kake.

Ziyeneretso ndi Kumva

Pamlingo wochepa, kulinganiza koyenera kumafuna kuti boma lipereke kwa anthu chidziŵitso cha zochita zolingaliridwa ndi mwaŵi wa kupereka mlandu wawo pamaso pa Wopanga zosankha wopanda tsankho. Dziŵani kuti mudziŵitse munthu woyambukiridwayo za kachitidwe koyembekezera ndi maziko amene kazikidwapo, kuwapatsa mpata wabwino woyankha. Kumvetsera kuyenera kuchitidwa panthaŵi yatanthauzo ndi m’njira yatanthauzo, kupatsa munthuyo mpata wopereka umboni, mboni zowololeka za mtanda, ndi kuyambitsa mfundo zalamulo.

Ziyeneretso zimenezi sizili zotheratu ndipo sizimagwira ntchito mofanana pa kachitidwe kalikonse ka boma. Khoti Lapamwamba lazindikira kuti njira yoyenerera njosinthika ndipo limafuna kuti zitetezero zachibadwa zoterozo monga mmene mkhalidwe ungafunikire. M'nkhani zina, kumvetsera kokwanira kwa mtundu wa kuyesa kungakhale kofunikira, pamene kuli kwakuti kwa ena, kupenda kwamwayi kungakwanire. Mfungulo njakuti njirazo ziyenera kukhala zolungama kupatsidwa mtundu wa zikondwerero zoloŵetsedwamo ndi mikhalidwe ya mlanduwo.

Kulinganiza Mathews ndi Eldidge

Makonzedwe amakono openda njira zoikizira malamulo a procedtural adakhazikitsidwa m'nkhani yosonyeza zinthu 1976 Mathews v. Eldiridge , mmene Khoti Lapamwamba linapenyetsa mayeso atatu oyenera. Khotilo linagamula kuti kupenda koyenera kumafuna kupenda zinthu zitatu: choyamba, chikondwerero chaumwini chimene chidzayambukiridwa ndi kachitidwe kalamulo; chachiŵiri, kusoŵa kwa choloŵacholoŵacho kupyolera kupyolera m’madongosolo amene akugwiritsiridwa ntchito, ndi mtengo woyenerera wa zowonjezereka kapena zotetezera zoloŵera; ndi chachitatu, chikondwerero cha boma, kuphatikizapo zikondwerero za filimu ndi za boma, kuphatikizapo madongosolo a za boma amene amatsatira.

Mayeso oyenera amene amazindikira kufunika kwa kulinganiza zoyenera za munthu ndi zowona za boma. Pamene kuli kwakuti kuyesako kwasulizidwa ndi akatswiri ena kaamba ka kupereka kulemera kwakukulu ku ntchito za akaidi. Kumasonyeza njira yoyenerera ya kukonza zinthu zimene zimazindikira kufunika kwa kulinganiza zoyenera za munthu ndi zowona za boma.

Njira Yofunika Kwambiri Yotetezera Ufulu Wofunika

Njira yofunikira yosadziŵika bwino ndi mbali yofunika kwambiri ya chiphunzitso choyenera. Mosiyana ndi njira yoyenerera, imene imasonyeza kuyenera kwa njira zogwiritsiridwa ntchito ndi boma, njira yoyenerera yopendera kukhutitsidwa ndi lamulo lenilenilo , kufunsa ngati boma lili ndi chilungamitso chokwanira cha kuloŵetsa ufulu m'malo ena. Limatetezera zoyenera zina zazikulu ku zododometsa za boma, ngakhale pamene boma litsatira njira zabwino.

Ufulu Wofunika Kwambiri ndi Kufufuza Kolimba

Khoti Lalikulu lanena kuti ufulu wina wa kukwatira, ufulu wotsogolera ana a munthu, ufulu wa thupi, ndi ufulu wopanga zosankha zaumwini. Makhoti amafunika kuteteza kwambiri pa ufulu wapadera wa ATC. Malamulo amafunika kuyang'anira bwino kwambiri, ndipo amaonetsetsa kuti boma likufuna kuti lisonyeze kuti lamulolo limathandiza kwambiri ndipo limathandiza kuti anthu apeze chidwi.

Chiphunzitso cha njira yoyenerera ya kuletsa chidani chakhala nkhani ya mkangano waukulu m’mbiri yonse ya Amereka, ndi osuliza akumanena kuti chimapatsa oweruza nzeru yaikulu kuchotsa malamulo oikidwa mwademokrase ozikidwa pa miyezo yawoyawo. Ochirikiza amavomereza kuti njira yofunikira yoperekera ufulu iri yofunika kutetezera munthu aliyense ku ulamuliro wankhanza ndi kuti makhoti ali ndi mbali yalamulo m’kuzindikiritsa ndi kukhazikitsa mapindu ofunika kwambiri oikidwa m’Bukhu la Malamulo.

Chiphunzitso Chogwirizanitsa

Chimodzi cha zifuno zazikulu kwambiri za kachitidwe koyenera kokhala pakati pa ma 1920 ndi 1960, Bwalo Lapamwamba linagwiritsa ntchito ma Claus a Dooke a Geneth Amendment "incorporate" makonzedwe ena a Bill of Rights ndi kupangitsa iwo kugwira ntchito ku maboma. M'nkhani zotsatizana zimene zinagamulidwa pakati pa ma 1920 ndi 1960, Bwalo Lapamwamba linagwiritsira ntchito zitsimikizo za Directive Claus kutetezera ufulu wa ufulu wa anthu ndi chipembedzo, kuletsa kwa Lachinayi kufufuza ndi kugwidwa ndi njirinjiri, ndi kuyenera kwa Kulangiza kwa Chisanu ndi Chisanu ndi Chimodzi.

Khotilo linakana chigomeko chakuti Malo Oyenera kapena Kuphatikizapo Claus wa 14th Amendment linali galimoto yogwiritsira ntchito, mmalo mwake kudalira pa Access Claus monga magwero a chitetezo. Khotilo linakananso kaimidwe kakuti Bill of Rights iyenera kugwiritsidwa ntchito ku mayiko onse, odziŵika monga kuphatikiza pamodzi, moyanjana ndi njira yosankha ya kagwiritsidwe ntchito kamodzi komwe kozikidwa pa mkhalidwe wake waukulu. Pofika kumapeto kwa zaka za zana la 20, pafupifupi zonse zimene Bill of Rights yakhala itaikidwa m’manja mwa Creace pa Ce, kupanga malo a ufulu wa dziko lonse amene maboma sangalakwire.

Milandu Yaikulu ya Khoti

Zochitika Zochititsa Chidwi

Goldberg v. Kelly (1970)

Mu Goldberg v. Kelly [FLT :1], Bwalo Lapamwamba linavomereza kuti Account Proces Claus ikufuna kumvedwa koonekeratu pamaso pa wolandira angathetsedwe pa mapindu a ubwino. Mlanduwo unabuka pamene New York City inafuna kuchotsa mapindu a olandira ambiri popanda kuwapatsa mpata wa kupereka umboni kapena mboni pamaso pa wopanga chigamulo chosakondera. Khoti linagamula kuti mapindu a moyo ndiwo kuyenerera kwa awo amene ali oyenerera, ndi kuti kukwaniritsa mapindu oterowo kumalanda anthu chiwongolala cha katundu chimene chimatetezeredwa ndi makonzedwe a Claus.

Jasitisi Brennan, polembera anthu ambiri, anagogomezera kuti mapindu a moyo wabwino si mtundu wa chithandizo koma nkhani ya ufulu wa olandira oyenerera. Khotilo linavomereza kuti njira yoyenerera imafunikira kumvetsera kwa kanthaŵi kotsatizana ndi mpata wa kupereka umboni, kuyang'anizana ndi kudutsana ndi kuimiridwa ndi uphungu. Nkhaniyi inasonyeza kukula kwakukulu kwa njira zotetezera zoyenerera za kupindula ndi maprogramu a boma ndi kukhazikitsa lamulo lakuti boma silingamanetse anthu ena ndi malamulo popanda kupereka chitetezo chapadera.

Mathews v. Eldridge (1976)

Monga momwe taonera pamwambapa, Mathews v. Elditridge [[FLT :1] adakhazikitsa mayeso atatu olinganiza amene makhoti amagwiritsira ntchito kugamula njira zimene zimafunikira ndi Claus . Mlanduwu unaphatikizapo kutsutsana ndi njira zogwiritsidwa ntchito ndi Social Security Administration ku zopindulira. Mosiyana ndi mapindu a moyo mu [[FLT:] Goldberg v. Kelly , mapindu a kupunduka anathetsedwa ndi umboni wa zamankhwala amene angapendedwe mwa kugonjera kolembedwa m’malo mwa umboni wamoyo.

Khotilo linavomereza kuti njira zogwiritsiridwa ntchito ndi Social Security Administration . izi zinaphatikizapo chidziŵitso cha kutha kolingaliridwa, mwaŵi wa kupereka umboni wa zamankhwala wolembedwa, ndi kuyenera kwa kupendanso pamaso pa woweruza walamulo lauyang'anira . Khotilo linasiyanitsa Goldberg v. Kelly pa maziko amene zigamulo za kupunduka zazikidwa pa umboni wa mankhwala wotsimikizirika mmalo mwa kupenda kwa lamulo la kulephera, kuchepetsa upandu wa kusoŵa kolakwa. [[FLT.2] Mathes [1] Chiyambire mayeso a mapulogalamu a bungwe la bungwe lofufuza m'malamulo.

Miranda ndi Arizona (1966)

Mu , imanda ndi Arizona . ASTAIN , Bwalo Lapamwamba linakhazikitsa lamulo lakuti apolisi ayenera kudziŵitsa anthu za ufulu wawo walamulo asanachite apime mlandu. Mlanduwu unakhudza Ernesto Miranda, amene anaimbidwa mlandu wa kuba ndi kugwirira chigololo kochitidwa pambuyo pa kuulula kochitidwa ndi apolisi atamufunsa popanda kumudziŵitsa za ufulu wake wa kukhala chete kapena kuyenera kwake kwa uphungu. Khotilo linanena kuti ufulu wa Kusintha kwa Gawo 5 motsutsana ndi kudziimba mlandu umafunikira lamulo kupereka machenjezo aumwini asanaimbidwe.

Chigamulo cha Khotilo chinali chozikidwa pa kuzindikira kuti kufunsa kwa mwana kuli kogwirizana mwachibadwa ndi kuti onyumwira sangakhale ozindikira za ufulu wawo walamulo. Machenjezo a Miranda . Kuphatikizapo kuyenera kwa kukhala chete, kuyenera kwa kupereka uphungu, ndi chenjezo lakuti chilichonse chimene wokayikirayo chingagwiritsidwe ntchito ku bwalo lamilandu. Ndi chimodzi cha zitetezero zodziŵika kwambiri za malamulo a ku America. Mlandu wogogomezera mfundo yakuti njira ya kukhazikitsa malamulo imafunikira nduna za boma kuvomereza kutetezera ufulu wa munthu aliyense payekha, makamaka m’mawu apamwamba amene anthu sangakhale ozindikira ufulu wawo.

Zinthu Zofunika Kuzikumbukira

M’bale Jackson ndi mkazi wathanzi (2013)

Roe v. Wade imaimira limodzi la machitidwe ofunika kwambiri ndi otsutsana a ntchito yofunikira yoikidwiratu m'mbiri ya America. Khoti linavomereza kuti Claus Century of the 14th Amendment imateteza ufulu wa mkazi wosankha kuchotsa mimba, kupeza kuti kuyenera kumeneku kumaloŵa m’chitetezero cha lamulo chaumwini ndi thupi. Malingaliro a anthu ambiri a Blackmun anazindikira kuti kuyenera kwa kukhala kwachinsinsi, ngakhale kuti sanatchulidwe mwachindunji m'Malamulo, amatetezeredwa ndi Procestion Claus monga chonux.

Pafupifupi zaka makumi asanu pambuyo pake, Khoti Lalikulu linalamulira Roe v. Wade mu [FLT] Dobs v. Jackson Akazi a Health Organization [202], posunga kuti malamulo samavomereza kuchotsa mimba. Woweruza Alito anatsutsa kuti ufulu wa kuchotsa mimba sunachoke kwambiri m'mbiri ya dziko ndi miyambo ndi kuti ulamuliro wakuletsa kutaya mimba uyenera kubwezeredwa kwa anthu ndi osankhidwa. Mlandu wa mlanduwo umaimira kusintha kwakukulu mchitidwe woyenerera wa ku Jurisprucrance ndipo walamulira makhoti a bwalo lamilandu lamilandu lamilandu uyenera kugwiritsa ntchito ufulu wa kukhazikitsa malamulo.

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)

Mu lingaliro la ambiri la Kennedy linagogomezera kuti kuyenera kwa kukwatira kuli kuyenera kofunika kotetezeredwa ndi Act Claus , ndi kuti kuyenera kumeneku kumafikira kwa okwatirana amodzimodziwo monga ngati okwatirana a ku mlingo wosiyana ndi wa 14neth Amend Amendment. Khoti linalingalira kuti kuyenera kwa kukwatira kwa kuyenera kwa kukwatirana kwachokera ku mbiri ya dziko ndi miyambo, ndi kuti kuchotsa okwatirana apakati pa ukwati kukana ulemu ndi ufulu womwe malamulo a boma atetezera.

Chigamulo chinali chilakiko chapadera kaamba ka ufulu wa LGBTQ ndipo chinaimira kuwonjezereka kwapadera kwa zitetezero zofunikira za kachitidwe ka opatulidwa. Khotilo linagwiritsira ntchito njira zazikulu za ufulu wokhazikitsidwa m'milandu yoyambirira, likumati kuyenera kwa kukwatira kuli chikondwerero chachikulu chimene sichingakanizidwe kwa okwatirana auchinyamata omwe alibe chikondwerero chokakamiza cha boma.

Glucksberg (1997)

Mu Shashington v. Glucksberg . , Khoti Lalikulu linafotokoza njira zamakono zodziŵira zoyenera zapadera pansi pa Century Claus . Mlanduwu unaphatikizapo chiletso cha dokotala wa Washington pa kudzipha kogwirizana, ndi otsutsa kunena kuti Claus Centu akuteteza munthu wodwalayo ku ufulu wake wakupha ndi chithandizo cha mankhwala. Khoti linakana mfundo imeneyi, likumati kuyenera kuthandiza kudzipha si chinthu chofunika kwambiri chotetezeredwa ndi ntchito yokhudza kudzipha.

Chigamulo chachikulu cha Woweruza Rehnquist chinakhazikitsa mayeso aŵiri a mbali ziŵiri a kuzindikiritsa zoyenera zazikulu: choyamba, makhoti ayenera kulongosola kulondola pamlingo woyenera wa kuchuluka, kupenda mbiri ya mtundu, miyambo yalamulo, ndi machitachita; yachiŵiri, makhoti ayenera kugamulapo kaya kuyenera kwazikidwa kwambiri m'mbiri ya mtundu ndi miyambo ndipo kutanthauza kuti pali ufulu wolamulidwa. [FLT] GLFFGULSberg[ maziko amalimbikitsa kuletsa ndi kugonjera ku machitidwe a democrase, ofuna kusanthula mosamalitsa mbiri yakale asanavomereze zoyenera zatsopano zofunika kwambiri pansi pa dongosolo la Claus.

Kutsatira Malamulo a M’madera Oyang’anira ndi Otsogolera

Zitetezero zoyenerera sizikungoperekedwa ku milandu ya upandu ndi kuperekedwa kwa boma; zimagwiranso ntchito m'mbali yaikulu ndi yomakulakula ya lamulo la uyang'aniro. Mabungwe a boma ku boma, boma, ndi milingo ya kumaloko amapanga zosankha zosaŵerengeka zimene zimayambukira miyoyo ya anthu, ufulu, ndi katundu, kuphatikizapo zosankha zokhudza kutumiza, mapindu, zilolezo, ndi kuvomereza. Administrative Procedure Act (A) ya 1946 inakhazikitsa dongosolo lokwanira la kupanga zigamulo, kufunikira chidziŵitso ndi kupereka ndemanga za malamulo ndi kupereka njira zoweruza za machitidwe a bungwe.

M'nkhani za kuyang'anira, njira zofunikira za kulinganiza zimafuna kuti mabungwe apereke anthu odziŵa bwino zochita zolingaliridwa, mwaŵi wa kupereka umboni ndi mikangano, ndi mafotokozedwe olingalira kaamba ka zosankha zomalizira. Njira zofunikira zimadalira pa mtundu wa chiwongola dzanja pamtengo ndi kulunjikitsa zinthu zowonekera pansi pa mboni zotsutsa ndi mtanda. Mosiyana, zosankha ponena za chisungiko cha anthu zingapangidwe mwa njira zochepera zimene zimakwaniritsabe zofunika za kuyenerera kwabwino.

Kukula kwa mabungwe a boma kwayambitsa mavuto atsopano a ntchito yolamulira, pamene mabungwe akugwiritsa ntchito maulamuliro amene amaphatikiza malamulo, maulamuliro, ndi maweruzi. Khoti Lapamwamba lazindikira kuti mabungwe angapereke ufulu wa munthu aliyense payekha m'makonzedwe a boma, ngati mayesowo akwaniritsa zofunika zazikulu za njira yofunikira ndi kuti pali kupenda kopindulitsa kwa malamulo. Kukhazikitsa malamulo a boma ndi njira zofunikira kumakhala mbali yaikulu ya kutukuka kwa lamulo, makamaka monga mabungwe odalira kwambiri pa malamulo ndi nzeru zopanga kupanga zosankha zimene zimakhudza ufulu wa munthu aliyense payekha.

Zotsatira za Chilungamo cha Apandu

Dongosolo la chiweruzo la upandu limapereka kugwiritsidwa ntchito kodabwitsa ndi kwapamwamba kwa malamulo amakhalidwe abwino oyenera. Pamene boma lifuna kulanda munthu ufulu . kapena, m'nkhani za imfa, moyo . Mwa kumangidwa ndi apandu, chitetezo cha lamulo cha Treat Process Claus chili pa msinkhu wawo. Malamulo amafuna kuti oimbidwa mlanduwo alandire chitetezo chambiri cha kumbuyo, kuphatikizapo kuyenera kwa mlandu wofulumira ndi wapoyera, kuyenera kwa oweruza opanda tsankho, kuyenera kuuzidwa milandu yowatsutsa, kuyenera kwa kuyang'anizana ndi mboni zawo, kuyenera kwa kukakamiza kuti alandire Mboni zawo, ndi kuyenera kwa chithandizo cha uphungu.

Pambali pa zitsimikizo zachindunji zimenezi, njira yoyenerera m’nkhani zaupandu imafunikira chilungamo chachikulu m’mayendedwe onse a upandu. Khoti Lapamwamba lanena kuti njira yoyenerera imatsutsidwa pamene boma ligwiritsira ntchito umboni wonama mwadala kupeza chitsimikizo, pamene limatsendereza umboni wopereka umboni wa liwongo umene uli wokhudza liwongo kapena chilango, kapena pamene limachita zinthu zimene zimawopsyeza chikumbumtima. Mchitidwe wa Active Procession Clause umafunanso kuti oimbidwa mlanduwo akhale okhoza kuimirira mlandu, kuti zilengezo za liwongo likhale lodzigangira, ndi kuti boma litsimikizire mbali iriyonse ya cholakwacho popanda chikayikiro.

Kugwiritsira ntchito njira yoyenerera m'milandu yaupandu kwasintha kwambiri mkupita kwa nthaŵi, ndi Warren Court mu 1960 ndi mapulojekiti owonjezereka otetezera a apandu kupyolera m'zigamulo zokhala ndi chizindikiro monga Gideon v. Wainwright [1] (1963), imene inakhazikitsa kuyenera kwa kupereka uphungu kwa oimbidwa mlandu m'maupandu, ndi Mapp v. Ohio (1961]), imene inagwiritsira ntchito lamulo la chigamulo cha boma lopanda mlandu. Zigamu zasonyeza kuzindikira kuti njira yoyenerera ya kusungitsa milandu ya upandu ndi kuletsa boma kugwiritsa ntchito mphamvu zake zolakwika.

Kusintha kwa Malamulo kwa Pachiweniweni

Zitetezero zofunikira zimagwiranso ntchito m'mabungwe a boma, kumene boma kudzera m'makhoti ake limathetsa mikangano pakati pa zipani za anthu kapena pakati pa zipani zachinsinsi ndi boma. Mapangano a Active Claus amafuna kuti anthu alandire chidziŵitso chokwanira cha milandu yawo ndi mwaŵi watanthauzo wa kumvedwa pamaso pa bwalo la milandu lopanda tsankho. Zimenezi zimaphatikizapo kuyenera kwa kupereka umboni, kutsutsa ziphunzitso zalamulo, ndi kuchonderera zigamulo zolakwika ku khoti lalikulu.

Khoti Lapamwamba lazindikira kuti njira yoyenerera siifuna mlingo wofanana wa chitetezo chalamulo m’milandu yachiŵeniŵeni monga m’milandu, koma zofunika zazikulu za kudziŵidwa ndi mwaŵi wa kumvedwa zikugwira ntchito mwamphamvu. Mwachitsanzo, khotilo lanena kuti njira yoyenera ikufuna kuti eni katundu alandire chidziŵitso cha panthaŵi yake ndi mwaŵi wakutsutsa kutayikiridwa kwa chuma chawo kusanatengedwe ndi boma. M’nkhani ya kudzipereka kwa boma, khotilo lanena kuti njira yoyenera imafunikira umboni womveka bwino ndi wokhutiritsa munthu asanachite chiweruzo cha maganizo.

Kugwiritsa ntchito njira yoyenerera m’nkhani zachiŵeniŵeni kumadzutsa mafunso ofunika kwambiri onena za kuyenerera chilungamo, makamaka anthu olandira ndalama zochepa amene sangakhale okhoza kuimira mwalamulo. Pamene kuli kwakuti Access Claus state sakufuna kuti boma lipereke uphungu m'nkhani zachiŵeniŵeni, Khoti Lalikulu lazindikira kuti njira yofunikira ingafunikire chitetezo chapadera m’zochitika zimene ufulu waukulu uli pa ngozi kapena kumene kusoŵa kolakwika kuli kwakukulu.

Mavuto Amene Adzabwere

Chisungiko cha Dziko ndi Kachitidwe Kotsatira

Mwinamwake vuto lalikulu kwambiri la masiku ano limachitika chifukwa cha chitetezo cha dzikolo. Zigaŵenga za pa September 11, 2001, zinachititsa boma la United States kuchita zinthu zosiyanasiyana zimene zinayambitsa nkhaŵa zazikulu, kuphatikizapo kumangidwa kwa zigaŵenga zokayikiridwa ku Guantanamo Bay, kugwiritsa ntchito magulu ankhondo kuyesa ogwidwa, ndiponso kuonetsetsa kuti anthu a ku United States ndi kumayiko ena akulankhulana popanda kulephera. Boma linatsutsa kuti njira zotetezera zamwambo zinali zosathandiza kapena zoopsa pankhondo yapadziko lonse pankhondo yauchigawenga, pamene ochirikiza ufulu wa anthu anatsutsa kuti kuletsa ntchito yoyenera inali yosagwirizana ndi yokhudzana ndi yothandiza anthu ndiponso yothandiza anthu.

Khoti Lapamwamba linafotokoza zina mwa nkhani zimenezi m'zigamulo zimene zinatsimikizira kufunika kwa ntchito yofunika kwambiri ngakhale m'nkhani za chitetezo cha dziko. M' HAmdi v. Rumsfeld (2004]), Bwalo lamilandu linanena kuti anthu a ku U.S. akugwidwa monga adani ali ndi njira yoyenerera yomenyera nkhondo kuti atsutse maziko enieni a kutsekedwa kwawo asanapangitse munthu wopanga chigamulo. [Mu [FLT:] Boumetee v. Bush . [2006] [ma] [ma], Bwalo la bwalo lamilandulo limakhulupirira kuti ogwidwa ku Guantana Bay, lili ndi lamulo loyenerera kubwereramo kwa boma lopereka chigamu cha lamulo la lamulo loyenerera.

Kugwiritsa Ntchito Zipangizo Zamakono, Kudzibisa, ndi Makompyuta

Kupita patsogolo kwa luso la zopangapanga kwachititsa kuti pakhale mavuto atsopano amene okonza malamulowo sakanayembekezera. Kukwera kwa makompyuta, zofufuza za makompyuta, zopereka, ndi kupanga maalamu kubutsa mafunso ofunika a mmene ntchito iyenera kugwirira ntchito pa nyengo ya makompyuta. Pamene mabungwe a boma asonkhanitsa chidziŵitso chawo mwa kuyang'anira zinthu zamagetsi, kukumba madata, kapena kukhazikitsa malamulo otetezera zinthu zimene zikufunika, ndi ziti zimene zimagwira ntchito? Pamene maajensi a matanthauzo a pulogalamu akugwiritsidwa ntchito kupanga zosankha zokhudza ngongole, ntchito, nyumba, kapena chigamulo, kodi ndi ufulu wotani umene anthu ali nawo womvetsa ndi kutsutsa zosankha zimenezo?

Khoti Lapamwamba lachitapo kanthu mwamphamvu kuwonjezera njira zotetezera zofunikira ku malo a manambala, makamaka m'nkhani ya kufunafuna kwa Foursed Amendment ndi lamulo lolanda. Riley v. California (2014, Bwalo lamilandu linavomereza kuti apolisi satha kusanthula zamkati za foni ya m'manja popanda chilolezo, kuzindikira kuti matelefoni amakono ali ndi chidziŵitso chaumwini chochuluka chimene chimafuna kukwaniritsa zachinsinsi. Karpaternent v. United States[FLT:] (20), Bwangwe lamilandu linasunga kuti kupezeka kwa maselo a m'maselo a mbiri yakale kufunafuna kokhala ndi mfundo yofunikira, kukana chiphunzitso chachitatu chokhudza chiphunzitso cha chiphunzitso chachitatu chimene chinaloledwa ndi makampani opanga makompyuta.

Mitu imeneyi imaimira njira zofunika kwambiri zotetezera njira zofunikira m'nyengo ya manambala, koma zovuta zazikulu zikutsala. Kugwiritsidwa ntchito kwa maroboti popereka chilango chaupandu, mwachitsanzo, kumadzutsa nkhaŵa za kuonekera kwa munthu, kuŵerengera, ndi tsankho kuti madongosolo oyenera a mwambo sangakhale ogwirizana mokwanira. Akatswiri ndi ochirikiza akupempha "njira zoyenerera" za malamulo amene angafunikire kuonekera kwa ndandanda, kuyenera kwa kulongosola, ndi kuyang'anira kwatanthauzo kwa munthu kwa madongosolo opanga zosankha.

Kusamuka ndi Kupititsidwa Kudziko Lina

Lamulo lopatula dziko limapereka malo ena kumene chitetezo choyenera chakhala nkhani ya kutsutsana kwakukulu ndi kutsutsa . Khoti Lapamwamba lakhala ndi lingaliro kwa nthaŵi yaitali kuti Account Claus imagwira ntchito kwa anthu onse mu United States, mosasamala kanthu za malo awo osamukirako, koma ukulu wa chitetezo cha kusamuka m'zochitika za kusamuka wachepetsedwa ndi kutetezedwa kwa lamulo monga nkhani ya ufulu wachifumu mmalo mwa ufulu wa lamulo. Osati ndi ma Centizen oyang'anizana ndi kuchotsedwa kwa lamulo ali ndi ufulu wa kuzindikira ndi kumvetsera, kuyenera kwa kupereka uphungu pa ndalama zawo, ndi mwaŵi wa kupereka umboni ndi kupenda mboni, koma chitetezo chopezeka m'khoti ya anthu osamukira m'mabwalo a boma alipo kaŵirikaŵiri chochepa kuposa chilo cha milandu yaupandu.

Kugwirizana kwa kusungitsa anthu kusamuka ndi lamulo la apandu kwayambitsa nkhaŵa zapadera, makamaka m'zochitika zimene anthu osafikapo okhala ndi maunansi kwa United States ali omangidwa ndi kuchotsedwa kokakamiza ndi kuchotsedwa kozikidwa pa zigamulo zaupandu. Kugwiritsira ntchito kwa boma kwa njira zochotsera anthu ochotsedwa, zimene zimalola akuluakulu a boma kulamula kuti achotsedwe popanda kumvetsera m’mikhalidwe ina, atsutsidwanso kukhala akuswa njira yoyenerera. Pamene lamulo la oloŵa m'dziko likupitirizabe kukhala nkhani ya ndale, kufunsira kwa njira zotetezera osakhala a makampani pochotsa milandu kumakhala mbali yosulitsa yowopsa ya kufalikira kwa lamulo.

N’chifukwa Chiyani Ulamuliro wa Anthu Uyenera Kuchitika?

Makonzedwe a boma sali chabe chiphunzitso chalamulo; ndi mbali yaikulu ya ulamuliro wa demokrase ndi malamulo. Ilo limatsimikizira kuti zochita za boma ziyang’aniridwa ndi lamulo, kuti anthu ali ndi mwaŵi watanthauzo wakutsutsa zosankha za boma zimene zimayambukira miyoyo yawo, ndi kuti kugwiritsira ntchito mphamvu ya boma kumalamulidwa ndi njira zolungama ndi ulemu kaamba ka ufulu wa munthu payekha. Popanda njira yoyenera, boma limangokhala lodzisankhira ndi losatsimikizirika, ndipo anthu amatsala ali osavuta kugonjera ku malingaliro a olamulira.

Kuteteza anthu amene alibe mphamvu zowateteza ku boma n’kofunika kwambiri makamaka kwa anthu amene alibe ulamuliro woteteza zofuna zawo pa nkhani zandale.

Ndiponso, njira yoyenerera imathandiza ntchito yofunika kwambiri ya boma. Pamene zosankha za boma zipangidwa mwa njira zolungama ndi zoonekeratu, anthu amavomereza kwambiri zosankha zimenezo ngakhale pamene sakugwirizana ndi zotsatirapo zake. Kulingalira kwa chilungamo nkofunika kuti anthu azidalirana ndi boma ndi ulamuliro wa boma.

Kumaliza

Kutsatira malamulo a ku America kumakhalabe mbali yovuta ndi yamphamvu, kuteteza anthu ku zochita za boma zodziimira okha pamene akusintha ndi mikhalidwe yatsopano. Kuchokera ku chiyambi chake m'malamulo a boma ndi kutsata mayeso ake amakono m'malamulo a boma, kuweruza kwa maupandu, ndi nyengo ya makompyuta, lamulo lakuti boma liyenera kulemekeza njira zoyenerera ndi ufulu waukulu lisanamanitse anthu moyo, ufulu, kapena katundu waoneka kukhala wopirira kwambiri. Kumvetsetsa malamulo a prodeduration ndi njira zoyenerera, milandu yotchuka imene yaumba kukula kwawo, ndi zitokosozo zimene zamakono zimayesa malire awo kuti zikhale zofunika kuchirikiza kukhala nzika yodziŵa ndi kuchirikiza miyezo ya chilungamo ndi kuchirikiza mkhalidwe wa chilungamo umene uli pa mtima wa lamulo la American.

Monga nzika, aphunzitsi, ndi akatswiri a zamalamulo, tili ndi thayo la kutsimikizira kuti dongosolo loyenera likupitirizabe kukwaniritsa chifuno chake chachikulu cha kutetezera ufulu wa munthu aliyense ku ntchito yodziimira ya boma. Zimenezi sizimafuna kokha kuzindikira lamulo monga momwe lilili komanso kufunitsitsa kudziŵa zimene zimafunikira m’zochitika zatsopano ndi zosinthasintha. Mtsogolo mwa kukwaniritsa kwathu kogwirizana ndi lamulo lakuti palibe munthu aliyense ayenera kumanidwa ufulu wawo popanda chidziŵitso chatanthauzo, mwaŵi woyenera kumvedwa, ndi kudalira pa malamulo ofunika amene amatetezera.

Kuŵerenga kowonjezereka pa mbiri ndi kugwiritsiridwa ntchito kwa njira yoyenerera, fufuzani Cornell Indaneti ya Chidziŵitso cha Malamulo ya pulogalamu yoyenera , Project's of Tribution of Supreme Court imafish project , ndi Centiontion Anoteddition Anuted malongosoled Proces a Proces programme stame [1]