Maziko Akale a Njira Yoyenera Yoyendera

Malamulo akale kwambiri olembedwa amasonyeza kuti ngakhale m’nthaŵi zakale, anthu anazindikira kufunika kwa njira zolinganizidwa ndi zodziŵikiratu potsatira chilungamo. Njira yotsatira sinapangidwe mokwanira; m’malo mwake, inabuka pang’onopang’ono pamene anthu anayamba kudalira malamulo a anthu ongotsatira malamulo.

Malamulo a Hammurabi (chirca 1754 BCE)

Malamulo a Hammurabi, limodzi la zolembedwa zakale kwambiri zoŵerengedwa zautali waukulu, adakhazikitsa dongosolo la malamulo olembedwa omwe anagwiritsiridwa ntchito kwa nzika zonse za ufulu za Babulo. Pamene kuli kwakuti zilango kaŵirikaŵiri zinali zaukali ndi zozikidwa pa gulu, mpambo woyambitsidwa kulongosola mawu angapo: oimba mlanduwo adafunikira kupereka milandu, umboni unalingaliridwa, ndipo oweruza anayembekezeredwa kugwiritsira ntchito lamulo mosasintha. Mawu otchukawo akuti “di diso la munthu . Anali kuimira mtundu woyambirira wa kulinganiza, kuchepetsa chilango cha kuopsa kwa mlanduwo mmalo molola chilango chopanda chifukwa chomveka. Lingaliro limeneli la [[FL: 0] linkayenera kusungidwa, ndipo linkalembedwa malamulo alamulo olembedwa.

Magome 12 a Chilamulo cha Aroma (chircica 450 BCE)

Roman Republic inafalitsa Twelve Tables, mpambo umene unatsimikizira nzika iriyonse kuyenera kwa kudziŵa malamulo amene anaweruzidwa. Aromanso anayambitsa lingaliro la kuimira kwalamulo: woimbidwa mlandu akalankhula m’kudzitetezera kapena kufunsira wochirikiza. Lamulo la la kusintha mbali za m'mapatuko [“ Kumva mbali inayo] [] [] kulumikiza mbali inayo]) kuikidwa m'malamulo a Roma, kutsimikizira kuti palibe chiweruzo chimene chingaperekedwe popanda kumva mbali zonse ziŵiri. Pambuyo pake Justinian Code Coude code cod xet , lamulo limene linasonkhezera mwachindunji madongosolo a m'zaka zapakati a Yuropu. Zimenezi ndizopereka za Roma [FL.FFFFF]

Zochitika Zapakati: Magna Carta ndi Chilamulo Chachisawawa

M’zaka za m’ma 500 mpaka 1500, anthu anayamba kusintha kuchokera ku mfundo za anthu a nzeru za anthu n’kukhala ndi ufulu wovomerezeka mwalamulo, makamaka ku England.

Mbalame ya Magna Carta (1215)

Mwinamwake chikalata chimodzi chosonyeza chithunzithunzi chachikulu m'mbiri ya kachitidwe koyenera, Magna Carta anakakamizidwa pa Mfumu John ndi mabaronsi opanduka. Chaputala 39 cha tchata choyambirira chinalengeza kuti: “Palibe munthu waufulu adzagwidwa, kuikidwa m’ndende, kuchotsedwa, kuthamangitsidwa, kapena kuwonongedwa m’njira iliyonse, ndiponso sitidzapitiriza kapena kulamula kuti apereke mlandu wake, kusiyapo ndi chiweruzo cha lamulo la anzake kapena ndi lamulo la dziko. Mawuwa, “kudzera mwa lamulo la dziko,” ndiwo kholo la liwu lamakono la“ njira ya lamulo. Pamene Magna Carta poyamba anagwiritsira ntchito kokha kwa anthu (ang'ono panthaŵiyo), anakhazikitsa lingaliro losintha lakuti [FL: 0] mfumuyo inali lamulo. [FUT] Pambuyo pake, ndi malamulo ake owonjezera, ndipo pambuyo pake, Maglopeding’ono. [4]

Chilamulo Chachisawawa ndi Kuzenga Milandu kwa M’zaka za zana la 13 za Yury)

Kutsatira Magna Carta, oweruza Achingelezi anayamba kuyambitsa lamulo la anthu onse . Bungwe la malamulo oikidwiratu lomwe linatetezera ufulu wa munthu mmodzi. Pofika zaka za zana la 13, dongosolo la oweruza linachoka ku gulu la mboni za kumaloko nkukhala bungwe lopanda tsankho lomwe linagamulapo mafunso. Ufulu wa mlandu wa ajuli unakhala chitetezo chachikulu pa kutsenderezedwa kwa boma. Olemba malamulo a m'zaka zapakati monga Henry de Bracton anatsutsa kuti ulamuliro wa mfumu unali wochepetsedwa ndi mwambo ndi lamulo, kuwonjezera kuchirikiza mfundo zoyenerera za kachitidwe ka zinthu. Mkupita kwanthaŵi, lamulo lofala linapereka chigamulo cha ufulu wonena za ufulu wonena za kupondereze boma, kuyenera kwa mboni zolankhula ndi kuvomereza umboni wamakono.

Nthanthi ya Kuunikiridwa ndi Masinthidwe a Malamulo

M’zaka za zana la 17 ndi 18 m’zaka za zana la 18 munakhala kusintha koyenera kwa olingalira Otseguka maganizo amene anatsutsa kuti anthu anali ndi ufulu wachibadwa umene maboma sakanaphwanya popanda njira zoyenerera.

John Locke ndi Zachilengedwe Zoyenera (Zana la 17)

John Locke’s Treatises 2 of Boma [1689] adatsutsa kuti anthu onse amabadwa ndi ufulu wachibadwa ku moyo, ufulu, ndi katundu. Maboma amapanga ulunjiko wawo mwa kuvomerezedwa ndi olamulidwa ndi ndipo ayenera kuchita mogwirizana ndi malamulo okhazikitsidwa, osati malamulo otsatizana. Chiphunzitso cha Locle cha mayanjano chinanena kuti pamene boma liswa ufulu umenewu, limataya ulamuliro wake. Zikhulupiriro zake zinakhala maziko a nkhoswe ya njira zotetezera zoyenerera m'dziko la America. Locke anagogomezera kuti “malo alionse amatha, upandu umayamba, kuyambika, mawu ogwirizana ndi mawu ogwirizana ndi malamulo pambuyo pake.

Buku lachingelezi lakuti Council of Rights (1689)

Pambuyo pa Glorious Revolution, Nyumba ya Malamulo inakhazikitsa Bill of Rights, imene inakhazikitsa zitetezero zingapo zoyenerera: belo lopambanitsa ndi zilango zankhanza ndi zachilendo zinaletsedwa; oweruza anayenera kuikidwa bwino ndi kubwezedwa; ndipo chivomerezo cha Nyumba ya Malamulo chinafunikira kukhazikitsa malamulo. Chikalatachi chinagwirizana ndi Magna Carta ndi lamulo wamba, kupanga mpambo wa zoyenera zalamulo zimene zingapemphedwe motsutsana ndi Mfumu. Chinatsimikiziranso kuyenera kwa mfumu ndi kuyenera kwa kunyamula zida zankhondo kaamba ka iyemwini, zonse ziŵiri zimene ziri ndi mapangano oyenerera.

Kusintha kwa America ndi Malonjezo a Lamulo

Atsamunda a ku America, omwerekera m’malamulo a Chingelezi ndi malingaliro a Kuunikiridwa, anapanga dongosolo loyenerera lofuna kumenyera nkhondo ufulu wawo.

Lamulo la U.S. (1787)

Malamulo oyambirira anali ndi zitetezero zoyenerera zochepa, koma kapangidwe kake kanasonyeza malamulo oyenera: nthambi ya malamulo sinathe kudutsa mapepala a wonder (zigamulo zalamulo popanda kuzenga mlandu) kapena malamulo apambuyo pake; mphamvu yachiweruzo inaperekedwa kokha ku milandu ndi mikangano; ndipo mwaŵi wa habeas corpus sungalekedwe kusiyapo ngati mu chipanduko kapena kuukira. Zitetezero zimenezi zinali zolinganizidwa kuletsa kachitidwe ka boma kodzilamulira.

Mpumulo Wachisanu (1791)

Chikalata cha Fite Amendment ku Malamulo a ku United States chimanena momveka bwino kuti: “Palibe munthu amene... adzalandidwa moyo, ufulu, kapena katundu, popanda njira yoyenerera ya lamulo. Chiganizo chimenechi, limodzi ndi chitetezo cha kudzipha ndi kuopsa kwawiri, chinakhazikitsa muyezo wa dziko kaamba ka kuweruza kwa malamulo. Mawu akuti “mchitidwe wapamwamba wa lamulo” unabwerekedwa mwachindunji ku malamulo a ku England omasulira Magna Carta. Malamulo a Findmeternerandment amagwira ntchito ku boma la boma, ndipo kwa zaka pafupifupi 80, unali njira yokha yotsimikizira kukhazikitsa malamulo. Nkhani zoyambirira za mlandu woyambirira, monga [FLT:] Mrray’s ofs of . Homenbo & procementation. Coption , zinayamba kulongosola chigwirizano chake cha malamulo a lamulo lofala. [F.]

Mpumulo wa 14 (1868)

Pambuyo pa Nkhondo ya Chiŵeniŵeni, Kusintha kwa 14th Remendment kunawonjezera njira zotetezera ku zochita za maboma. Active Process Claus imaletsa boma lililonse kulanda “munthu aliyense wa moyo, ufulu, kapena katundu, popanda njira yoyenerera ya lamulo.” Kukonza kumeneku kunakhala chida champhamvu kwambiri cha ufulu wa anthu, kutheketsa khoti Lapamwamba kuswa malamulo a boma amene anaswa chilungamo chachikulu. Poyamba Khotilo linagwiritsa ntchito njira yoyenera m'malamulo a zachuma (yemwe amatchedwa kuti “Lochner Erar ), koma pofika pakati pa zaka za zana la 20, inakhala galimoto yotetezera kwambiri pa malamulo a ufulu wa anthu. Chiphunzitsochichi. Chiphunzitsochi cha [FLD: 0] chasankha mfundo yakuti lamulo la za kane, ndi kuyendetsa malamulo aungwe lachisanu ndi chisanu ndi chisanu ndi chisanu ndi chimodzi, chigamu chachikulu, chikalata chowonjezera chitetezero chachikulu cha chikalata chokhudza ufulu cha kuteteza.

Kuwonjezeka kwa Zaka za M’ma 1800 ndi 20

M’zaka za m’ma 1800 ndi 20, njira yoyeneretsedwa yochokera ku chiphunzitso chongosintha n’kukhala chiphunzitso chofala chomwe chinaphatikizaponso ufulu wochita zinthu. Makhoti ndi mabungwe okhazikitsa malamulo anafutukula tanthauzo la “malangizo a" ndi“ abwino” ndi kufunika kwa njira zoyenerera m’madongosolo atsopano.

Ntchito Yofunika Kuitsatira Ikula (Late 19-preest Yam’ma 20)

Pamene mabungwe a boma anakula, mapangano oyenera anabuka m'maudindo. Londoner v. Mzinda wa Denver [1] (1908), Khoti Lapamwamba linaona kuti eni ake a katundu anali ndi ufulu wozindikira ndi kumvetsera asanafufuzidwe. Pambuyo pake, Goldberg v. Kelly [1970]) analamula kuti olandira chithandizo sakanatha kutha popanda kumveka kwa pulogalamu yapadera, kufutukula njira yoyenerera kukhazikitsa malamulo. Masiku ano, mapulogalamu oyenera a boma amafunika kudziŵa, kumvetsera, kukonza mosakondera, ndi kugamula, kukonza, ndi kugamula zinthu zina za boma zimene zalanda ufulu, kapena kulanda munthu wina ufulu.

Njira Yofunika Kwambiri Pofika M’zaka za M’ma 1900)

Khoti Lapamwamba linayambitsanso chiphunzitso cha njira yoyenerera, imene imanena kuti ufulu wina waukulu ngwofunika kwambiri kwakuti palibe boma lililonse (kodiah) likhoza kuwasokoneza, mosasamala kanthu za njira zogwiritsiridwa ntchito. Griswold v. Connecticut[[[FL:1]] (1965), Khoti linapeza kuyenera kwa chinsinsi cha ukwati; [[FLT:]] Roe v. Wade [73])) Ikhoza kufutukulira zimenezi ku ufulu wa mkazi wosankha kuchotsa mimba; ndi [FLT:]. Hogges . Hogge v [FLD:5] (20]) (20) anapeza kuti okwatiranawo akuphatikizapo milandu yotsutsana ndi yotsutsana. Koma iwo satha kutetezera kulakwa kwake [FLvelv]

Warren Court and Criminal Procedure (50s-1960)

Chilungamo chachikulu Earl Warren’s Earren’s Earren chinasintha njira yochitira upandu. [[FLT:] Mapp v. Ohio [1] (1961) anagwiritsira ntchito lamulo lopatula ku maboma, kugwiritsa ntchito molakwika umboni. Gideon v. Waingrik [[FLT:] [196]] (63]) inatsimikizira kuyenera kwa kulangiza kwa oimbidwa mlandu m'milandu. [FLT:] MERT] Marnanda v. Arizona[FL:] (1966] apolisi anafunikira kudziŵikitsa zoyenera zawo kukhala chete ndi kuimira. Malamulo osinthawo amafunikira njira [FFF: FLT]

Mafotokozedwe Amakono ndi Malingaliro a Dziko Lonse

M’zaka za m’ma 2000 zino, zinthu zikusinthabe pamene makhoti akulimbana ndi luso la zopangapanga, chitetezo cha dziko, ndiponso mfundo za ufulu wa anthu padziko lonse.

Luso la Zamakono, Kudzibisa, ndi Kukonza Zinthu Moyenera

Luso lamakono limatsutsa madongosolo oyenera a kachitidwe ka zinthu. Riley v. California . (2014, Khoti Lalikulu linavomereza kuti apolisi amafunikira chilolezo chofufuza zinthu za masamu pa foni, kuzindikira kuti zipangizo zamakono zili ndi chidziŵitso cha munthu aliyense. Carbert v. United States [2018]) imafutukula kukambitsirana kwa mafaelo a m'mbiri, kupempha chilo choyenera cha kupezeka. Nkhani zimenezi zimasonyeza kuti njira zoyenerera ziyenera kutetezera chinsinsi m'nyengo ya masamu. [[FLT:] United States [FLT]

Ufulu wa Anthu Padziko Lonse ndi Zochita Zake

International Parvenment on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), yolandiridwa mu 1966 ndi yogwira mtima kuyambira 1976, imatsimikizira bwino lomwe kuyenera kwa kuzenga mlandu mwachilungamo ndi njira yoyenerera m'Chigawo 14. Imafuna kuti aliyense akhale ndi ufulu wa kuweruzidwa kwapoyera ndi kwapoyera ndi kwa komiti yopanda tsankho; kuti ozengedwa milandu aikidwe kukhala opanda liwongo; ndi kuti ali ndi ufulu wa kuthandizidwa mwalamulo, kupenda mboni, ndi kuchititsa apilo. Maiko ambiri aphatikiza miyezo imeneyi m’malamulo apadziko lonse, kupanga lamulo lapadziko lonse loyenera kuchitika. Komabe, kusungitsabe kusagwirizana, ndi mabungwe a ufulu wachibadwidwe akupitirizabe kuswa chikalata. [FLG:] Ofesi ya United Nations High Couragement for Human Rights [FFFF1]

Mavuto ndi Kutsutsana kwa Nthaŵi Yomweyi

Ntchito yotsatira iyang'anizana ndi zitsenderezo zatsopano m'mabungwe a boma, oloŵa m'dziko, ndi auyang'anira. Chikalata cha USA PARIOTTTT ndi maprogramu ofufuza otsatira achititsa nkhaŵa ponena za umboni wachinsinsi ndi kugwiritsira ntchito mabwalo ankhondo. Nthaŵi zambiri kuletsa kusoŵa chitetezo choperekedwa m'makhoti aupandu, zimene zimatsogolera kutsutsana za “kuchedwa" kaamba ka zosakhala zachigamulo. Khoti Lapamwamba la m'mabwalo lamilandu mu Hamdi v. Rumsteld [1] [2017]) adakhulupirira kuti ngakhale nkhondo ya adani yomangidwa ku United States inayenera kudziŵitsa ndi kuvomerezanso kwa njira yake yoyenera m'mbuyo m'nthaŵi ya nthaŵi ya nthaŵi ya nkhondo.

Kumaliza

Kusintha kwa nthaŵi ya kachitidwe ka zinthu kukuvumbula mbali zosasintha: kulimbana kuti ulamuliro wa boma uchitidwe bwino, motsimikizirika, ndi molemekeza ulemu wa munthu mmodzi. Kuyambira pa mapale adothi a Babulo kufikira pa mafoni amakono, lingaliro lalikulu lidakali limodzimodzilo(panopa munthu aliyense ayenera kumanidwa moyo, ufulu, kapena chuma popanda mwaŵi watanthauzo wa kumvedwa ndi chosankha chozikidwa pa malamulo, osati moyenerera. Pamene luso la zopangapangapangapanga ndi zitaganya zikupitiriza kuyesedwa ndi kuyengedwa. Chitokoso ku chitokosokoso ku mbadwo uliwonse ndicho kulemekeza zakalezo zakale pamene chikusinthana ndi zitetezero zofunika ku zinthu zatsopano za ulamuliro ndi chilungamo.