Table of Contents
Malo Oyambira Sukulu Opatulana ndi Malamulo
United States Constitution yatumikira ponse paŵiri monga nkhondo ndi magetsi ounikira m'kulimbana kwa nthaŵi yaitali kwa kuchotsa sukulu za ku America . Kuchokera ku kukonzedwanso kwa Reconsoletion ku zigamulo za Khoti Lapamwamba, Konsichushoni yapereka maziko alamulo kaamba ka kugaŵikana kwa mafuko m'maphunziro. Pamene ulendo kuchokera ku Plavey v. Ferguson[FL:1] [ku] mpaka Brown v. Board ya Maphunziro ndipo wakhala kupyola malire a , malamulo akukhalabe padera pa amene lonjezo la maphunziro limakhala pa mwaŵi wofanana. Nkhani imeneyi imasunga mbiri ya sukulu declate, kufufuza mfungulo, ndi zigamu za khoti lamilandu lopitirizabe la American American.
Makonzedwe Okonzanso ndi Lonjezo la Kulingana
Nkhani ya lamulo yochotsa sukulu kugawidwa sikumayamba m'ma 1950, koma m'zaka zotsatira Nkhondo Yachiŵeniŵeni. M'chaka cha 1865, Amendment (1865) inachotsa ukapolo, Mencence ya 145 inakhazikitsa ufulu waufulu ndi kutsimikizira chitetezero chofanana pansi pa lamulo, ndi Demendment ya 15 (1870) inaletsa tsankho la mafuko posankha. Zonsezi zinakonzedwa kuti zikonzeretu malamulo atsopano amene fuko silingatsimikizirenso ufulu wa munthu.
Chikalata cha Fileement Claus protection of the 14th Amendment n’chofunika kwambiri pa kuyesayesa kwa kusankhana. Chikuŵerenga kuti: "Palibe boma limene lidzakana munthu aliyense wokhala m’manja mwake kutetezeredwa kofanana kwa malamulo. Chinenero chooneka ngati chomveka chingakhale nkhani yaikulu ya kutsutsana kwa lamulo kwa zaka pafupifupi zana limodzi. Mawuwo sanatchule mwachindunji maphunziro, koma chitsimikizo chake chachikulu cha kufanana kwa ufulu wa anthu pansi pa lamulo chinapereka chida champhamvu kwa ochirikiza ufulu wa anthu amene anatsutsa kuti masukulu ogaŵanawo sangakhaledi ofanana.
Chiphunzitso cha "Mpatuko Koma Chofanana"
Ngakhale kuti analonjezedwa kuti akonzanso zowonjezera ufulu, Khoti Lalikulu linagamulapo mu Pnety v. Ferguson adachita choopsa kwambiri pa cholinga cha kulingana kwa mafuko. Pankhani imeneyi, Khoti Lonse linachirikiza lamulo la Louisiana lofuna kuti anthu azikhala m’malo amodzi pa sitima, likukhazikitsa chiphunzitso cha "Indec koma chofanana. Khotilo linagamula kuti Kusintha kwa 149 kunali kongofuna kukwaniritsa kulingana kwalamulo, osati kuchotsa tsankho la anthu lozikidwa pa fuko.
Woweruza John Marshall Harlan, wotsutsa yekha mu , analemba motchuka kuti: "Bungwe lathu Lalamulo ndi lakhungu, ndipo sadziŵa kapena kulola magulu pakati pa nzika zake. Chiphunzitso cha Harlan sichinakhale lamulo la dziko kwa zaka makumi asanu ndi limodzi, koma kutsutsana kwake kunapereka mfundo yakuti oimira ufulu wachibadwidwe adzagwiritsa ntchito kutsutsa ufulu wa anthu. Kwa theka loyamba la zaka za zana la makumi aŵiri, "27 koma kulingana" chiphunzitso chinalamulira osati kokha magalimoto a njanjiya komanso sukulu zapoyera, makamaka m'Gi Jimrow South.
Nthanthi ya Kulingana m’Masukulu Osiyana
M’ma 1930, masukulu osiyanasiyana a ana a Black anali osalingana kwenikweni ndi aja a ana achiyera. Mayiko a kummwera a m'masukulu olembedwa motsatira masukulu a Black, kupereka ndalama zochepa, malipiro a aphunzitsi otsika, nyumba zowonongeka, ndi mabuku akale. Pofika 1930, National Association for the Advanced of Colored People (NAACP) anayamba njira yalamulo yosonyezera kusalingana kwa maphunziro oletsedwa. M’malo motsutsa mwachindunji [[FLT: 0] Plessyy , NAACP adatsutsa kuti poyamba kugaŵiradi malo ofanana kwa ophunzira a Black, motero akuswa ufulu wa maphunziro.
Mkupiti wa NaACP wa Kulamulo ndi Msewu wa Brown
Mkupiti wa lamulo wa NAACP, wotsogozedwa ndi Charles Hamilton Houston ndi pambuyo pake Thir Good Marshall, anapitirizabe mwa njira yotsatizana ndi makhoti. M'milandu yonga ngati Missouri ex rel. Gaines v. Canada (1938]), [FLT] , SIMUL] . . Boma la Regets of University of Oklahoma[FLD] [FLT] (1988]), ndi [FLT: 4,8] Sutt v. Paint. Painter [FLT:] (1950]), , NaCPLACD , mwachipambano m'masukulu ndi akatswiri. Nkhani zimenezi zinayambitsa mbiri yotchuka, ndi yosagwirizana ndi yosiyana.
Pofika kuma 1950, NAACP inali yokonzeka kutsutsa kugaŵanitsa kochitidwa ndi lamulo. Gululo linapereka milandu m’maiko angapo, likumanena kuti sukulu zolekanitsa zinali zosalingana mwachibadwa, mosasamala kanthu ngati zinthu zowoneka zinali zofanana. Milandu imeneyi inaikidwa mu Brown v. Board of Topaka , imene Khoti Lapamwamba linavomereza kuimva.
Brown v. Board of Education: A Constitutional Watersed
Pa May 17, 1954, Bwalo Lapamwamba linapereka chigamulo chake chogwirizana mu Brown v. Boma la Maphunziro [1] . Woweruza Wamkulu Earl Warren, kulembera khoti, analengeza kuti "masukulu ophunzitsa ndi osayerekezereka ndi osakhoza kuteteza ana a Black pansi pa lamulo. Khotilo linadalira kwambiri pa umboni wa sayansi ya chikhalidwe cha anthu, kuphatikizapo maphunziro otchuka a akatswiri a zamaganizo a Kenneth ndi Mamie Clark, amene anasonyeza kuvulaza kwa maganizo kochititsidwa ndi kusokonezeka kwa bungwe la Plogalamu.
Chigamulo chinasintha ndi . Ferguson [[FLT :3] poyang'ana za maphunziro a anthu. Khoti linanena kuti kugaŵikana m'sukulu za anthu kunaswa Chitetezo Chofanana cha Malamulo a 14. Chigamulo chinali chodziŵika ndi mfundo za makhalidwe abwino. Monga momwe Warren analembera: "Tikugamula kuti m’mbali za maphunziro a onse chiphunzitso cha 'ogwirizana koma n’kupanda malo a "."
Brown II: "Ndi Liŵiro Lonse Lolephera Kusintha"
Chaka chotsatira, khoti linakambirana za kugwiritsa ntchito. M’malo molamula kuti achotse mwamsanga, khoti laling'ono linalangiza kuti lifune kuti pakhale liwiro lonse. Chinenero chimenechi chinali chololera kupatsa anthu a ku Southern kuti asinthe nthawi. Komabe, chinalola omasulirawo kuchedwa zaka zambiri, ngati si zaka makumi ambiri.
Maiko a Kum’mwera anavomera ndi zimene zinatchedwa "Massive Resistance . Maiko ena anakhazikitsa malamulo otsekera sukulu za boma mmalo mwa kuzilekanitsa. Ena a bungwe la otuant anakhazikitsa maprogramu ochirikiza masukulu achinsinsi, ogawidwa mogawa. Lonjezo la lamulo la Brown [1] lingafunikire nkhondo zowonjezereka za lamulo kuti asungidwe.
Kuletsa Kusankhana: Zigamulo za Khoti Lalikulu
M'zaka makumi ambiri zotsatira Brown, Bwalo Lapamwamba linapereka mpambo wa zosankha zimene zinamveketsa bwino ukulu wa thayo la lamulo la kuchotsa sukulu za polisi. Zigamulo zimenezi zinakulitsa kufikira kwa Experiture Protection Clause ndi kupereka makhoti ulamuliro wa kukwaniritsa mapulani a bungwe la Covergation.
Cooper v. Aaron (1958)
Pambuyo pa vuto pa Central High School ku Little Rock, Arkansas, kumene Bwanamkubwa Orval Faubus anagwiritsira ntchito National Guard kutsekereza ophunzira Black kuloŵa m'sukuluyo, Bwalo Lapamwamba linapereka chitsimikizo champhamvu cha ulamuliro wa boma. Mu Cooper v. Aaron . , khoti ligwirizana linavomereza kuti akuluakulu a boma sakanatha kuletsa malamulo a boma. Chigamulo chinatsimikiziranso kuti Malamulowo ndiwo lamulo lalikulu la dzikolo ndi kuti chitsutso cha boma cha desestigation chinali chosiyana ndi chotchedwa declitione.
Green v. County School Board (1968)
Mu Blueb v. County School Board of New Kent County , Bwalo Lapamwamba linakana "ufulu wa kusankha" makonzedwe amene adalephera kupanga kugaŵikana kwatanthauzo. Khotilo linagamula kuti makomiti a sukulu anali ndi ntchito yotsimikiza kuchotsa zotsala zonse za kusankha "root ndi nthambi". Chigamulo chimenechi chinasonyeza kusintha kuchoka ku ku kuletsa kugawa ndi kukakamiza kugwirizanitsa kokangalika.
Chann . Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education (1971)
Millaven v. Bradley (1974)
Mosiyana ndi malamulo aakulu a kumapeto kwa ma 1960 ndi kuchiyambi kwa ma 1970, chigamulo cha Milfant [magawo ambiri] chinaika malire aakulu pa mankhwala ochotsera ufulu. Khoti linagamula kuti kulinganiza kwa zigawo za zigawo zasukulu za m’midzi sikungafune kuti zikhale ndi phande pokhapo ngati zigawozo zinachitapo kanthu mwadala. Chigamulochi chinacho chinachotsa madera ambiri a azungu kuchokera ku malamulo otsika, kusiya madera a m’matauni okhala ndi ophunzira ochepa kwambiri. [[FL:]] [FLT:] [12] [12] .[FLT:] "'.[FLT] .V.V.
Zitokoso za Malamulo ndi Malamulo Osankhana
Ngakhale kuti malamulo apambana pa nyengo ya ufulu wachibadwidwe, masukulu ambiri a ku America lerolino akugawidwabe. Lipoti la Boma la Boma Office linapeza kuti ophunzira oposa 75 peresenti amapita ku sukulu kumene oposa 75 peresenti ya ophunzira ali a fuko limodzi kapena fuko. Kugaŵana kumeneku kumayendera pamodzi ndi zinthu: kukhala ndi anthu, kusintha kwa chiŵerengero, kugaŵikana kwa malamulo a khoti, ndi kusafuna kuyang'ana fuko la munthu wina m’masukulu.
Makolo Aloŵetsedwa m’Masukulu a M’chitaganya kutsutsana ndi Seattle (2007)
Chigamulo cha 2007 mu Makolo Oloŵetsedwa m'Masukulu a Community . Seattle School District No. 1 Chowonjezera kuvuta kwa malamulo a boma. Khoti linagonjetsa makonzedwe a kuntchito zapasukulu yodzifunira amene anagwiritsira ntchito mafuko kuti apeze njira zosiyanasiyana, poona kuti zolinga zimenezi zikuswa chitetezo cha ezakuti Claus atha. Woweruza wamkulu John Roberts analemba kuti "njira yoletsa tsankho pa maziko a fuko ndiyo kuletsa kuweruza pa maziko a fuko. Chigamulochi chinachepetsa mphamvu ya madera a sukulu yotenga njira zopitira patsogolo.
Mapeto a Kulekanitsidwa kwa Khoti
Kuyambira m'ma 1990, makhoti a boma anayamba kulengeza zigawo za sukulu "umodzi," kutanthauza kuti adachotsa zotsala zonse za kugaŵikana kufikira pamlingo wothekera. Pamene chigawo chinalengezedwa kukhala chaudindo, kuyang'anira khoti chinatha. Mazana a magawo a sukulu m'dziko lonselo anamasulidwa ku zitsogozo za kuchotsedwa kwa malamulo, ndipo ambiri anaona kubwerera ku njira zambiri za kulembetsa. Malamulo amene adalamulirapo kugwira ntchito kopambana mu desecturation analoŵedwa mmalo ndi kuyang'anira kopeka maganizo adala.
Kutsutsa Malamulo Chifukwa cha Zoyesayesa za Masiku Ano
Ngakhale kuti pali zopinga zimenezi, Konsichushoni imapitirizabe kupereka maziko alamulo a zoyesayesa za kugwirizana. Ochirikiza akutsutsa kuti Kutetezera kwa Ault Classia sikuletsa kulingalira konse kwa fuko, koma tsankho lokha lodabwitsa. Amatchula za kufunitsitsa kwa boma kwa kusiyanasiyana, koyamba kovomerezedwa ndi Khoti Lapamwamba m'nkhani za maphunziro apamwamba monga . Bollinger [1] (2003). Maboma ena asukulu ayamba kupanga zolinga zogwirizanitsa anthu a m'dziko, zimene zingapangitse mitundu yosiyanasiyana popanda kufunsa motsimikiza kwambiri pansi pa bungwe la Foundation Clavius .
Ndiponso, chitsimikizo cha Konsichushoni cha kutetezera kofanana chichilikiza mfundo zimene zikunena kuti ziyenera kulongosola kusiyanitsa pakati pa malamulo aupandu wa nyumba. Kufufuza kwasonyeza kuti kugaŵikana kwa sukulu nkogwirizana kwambiri ndi malo okhala, amene apangidwa ndi malamulo a boma makumi ambiri onga ngati kupendutsa ndi kuchotsa. Akatswiri ena a zamalamulo amatsutsa kuti Constitution ikufuna kuti boma lithetse njira zimenezi, ngakhale ngati sizinayambitsedwe mwachindunji ndi makomiti a sukulu.
Ntchito ya Malamulo a Boma
Pamene kuli kwakuti Konsichushoni ya boma imapereka maziko kaamba ka chitetezo chofanana, malamulo a boma achitanso mbali yaikulu m'kulimbana kwa sukulu. Malamulo ambiri a boma amaphatikizapo zitsimikizo zotsimikizirika za mkhalidwe wa maphunziro kapena kuchuluka zimene zimapitirira muyezo wa boma. M’zochitika zonga Abbott v. Burke[FLT :1] ku New Jersey ndi Sérno v. Mkulu wa ansembe ku California, khoti la boma ladalira pa malamulo a boma kuti lilinganize ndalama ndi chuma cha sukulu.
Kugwirizana kwa lamulo la boma ndi la boma kumapanga malamulo ovuta. M’maiko ena, ofufuza agwiritsira ntchito mwachipambano malamulo a boma kutsutsa kusiyana kwa ndalama zimene zimayambukira mokulira ophunzira a mitundu. Zochitika zimenezi zimasonyeza kuti Malamulo, m’lingaliro lake lalikulu, adakali chikalata chamoyo chokhoza kusinthira ku luntha latsopano la kulingana ndi chilungamo.
Nkhani Zopitirizabe: Kuyamba Kuphunzitsa, Konsichushoni Yamoyo, ndi Tsogolo la Kusankhana
Mkangano wa malamulo wonena za kugaŵana kwa sukulu umasonyeza kusagwirizana kwakukulu ponena za mmene Malamulo ayenera kumasulira. Ofufuza za m'malemba amanena kuti tanthauzo la Malamulo linakhazikitsidwa panthaŵi ya kutembenuza ndi kuti Chitetezo cha Enimeni si cholinga choletsa kusiyanitsa. Akatswiri a malamulo a malamulo amatsutsa kuti malamulo a malamulo apamwamba ayenera kusintha kuti agwirizane ndi mikhalidwe ya kakhalidwe ndi kuti BrowN [FL:1] ilock .
Mantha omasulira amenewa ali ndi zotsatirapo zazikulu. Ambiri a Khoti Lapamwamba losunga mwambo asonyeza kukayikira malamulo a fuko ndipo achepetsa mphamvu ya boma pa maphunziro. Panthaŵi ino, maboma ena achitapo kanthu paokha, kukhazikitsa malamulo amene amachirikiza kugwirizanitsa kapena, nthaŵi zina, kuletsa chiphunzitso cha mbiri ya fuko. Tsogolo la malamulo la sukulu la kuchotsedwa kwa mafuko likukhalabe losatsimikizirika, koma lemba ndi mbiri ya Malamulo likupitirizabe kupereka ulamuliro ndi chisonkhezero kwa awo ofuna kufanana.
Mapeto ake: Lonjezo Lokhalitsa la Konsichushoni
United States Constitution yakhala chipangizo chachikulu chalamulo m'kulimbana ndi kuchotsa sukulu za America . Kuyambira pa Reconstructives kufika ku Brown v. Board of Education [[FLT: 1] ndi kutsogolo, Konsichushoni yalimbikitsa nkhondo ya kulingana kwa mafuko m'malamulo a dziko. Komabe nkhaniyi njosiyana kwambiri ndi kutheratu. Sukulu ikupitirizabe, ndipo mafunso atsopano alamulo ndi malamulo akubukabe.
Ntchito ya Konsichushoni ya kuchotsako ku siingokhala mbiri chabe. Imakhalabe mbali ya moyo imene ochirikiza, aphunzitsi, ndi opanga malamulo ayenera kugwira ntchito. The Cumeal Protection Claus, Supremacy Claus, ndi malamulo a boma zonse zimaumba maluso a kugwirizana. Pamene mtunduwo ukupitirizabe kukangana mmene ungakwaniritsire lonjezo la Brown , Malamulo adzakhalabedi pakati pa kukambitsiranako.
Ulendo wochokera ku "wosiyana koma wolingana" ndi "mwaliŵiro wonse" kufikira ku tsiku lamakono umasonyeza kuti kusintha kwa malamulo kumachedwa, kumatsutsidwa, ndipo sikumatsimikizidwa. Koma Malamulo atsimikizira kukhala okhoza kukula ndi kumasuliranso. Icho chidakali, m'mawu a Woweruza Harlan, wopeputsa utope m'malingaliro ake ngati nthaŵi zonse mukugwira ntchito kwake. Ntchito ya desevalture ndi ntchito yopanga zikhumbo zimenezo kukhala zenizeni.