Chiphunzitso cha uchifumu cha aŵiri chimaimira limodzi la malamulo alamulo apadera kwambiri koma otsutsana kwambiri m'dongosolo laupandu ku America. Chimasintha kwambiri mfundo yotsimikizira kuti palibe munthu amene adzaikidwa paupandu womwewo kaŵiri kuti aikidwe pangozi kapena kuti chiŵalo chimodzi. Mwa kulola maulamuliro osiyanasiyana odziimira okha. Kuweruza boma ndi boma ndi boma lomwe /Kuweruza munthu mmodziyo chifukwa cha khalidwe lake, chiphunzitsocho chimasintha mwachindunji malire a ngozi zoŵirikiza kaŵiri. Kumvetsa maziko ake oyerekezera, chisinthiko cha mbiri yakale, ndi matanthauzo ake n’zofunika kwa aliyense wophunzira. Lamulo lachikhalidwe kapena kugwira ntchito m'gulu la milandu.

Maziko a Chitetezo cha Madzi Opachikidwa Aŵiri

Mpando wa Firfe Claus Wachisanu unakonzedwa kutetezera anthu ku kuvutitsa, kuwonongetsa, ndi kupweteka kwa mtima kwa mlandu wobwerezabwereza chifukwa chimodzimodzi. Unali kulamulanso mlandu umodzimodziwo pambuyo pa kukhululukidwa kapena kukhululukidwa, ndipo umaletsa chilango chambiri kaamba ka mlandu umodzimodziwo. Chitetezero chimenechi nchofunika kwambiri pa pangano lalamulo la America la kukhala lomalizira ndi lolungama.

Komabe chiganizocho sichotheratu. Khoti Lalikulu lakhala likuzindikira kwa nthaŵi yaitali kuti chitetezero cha ngozi ziŵiri chimagwira ntchito kokha mwa "ulamuliro wa". Pamene maboma aŵiri osiyana aliyense ali ndi ulamuliro wa kudziimira ndi kulanga mayendedwe aupandu, aliyense angagwiritsire ntchito mphamvu yake popanda kuswa nkhani za mnzake. Lamulo limeneli, lodziŵika monga chiphunzitso cha ulamuliro wa mbali ziŵiri, limalola kumangidwa kotsatizana ndi olamulira osiyanasiyana kaamba ka ka ka kachitidwe kamodzimodziko.

Maziko a Malamulo a Chiphunzitso cha Uchifumu cha Umodzi

Chiphunzitso cha uchifumu wa mbali ziŵiri chiri pa maziko amodzi: wolamulira aliyense amapeza ulamuliro wake kuchokera ku magwero osiyana. Boma laboma limatenga mphamvu yake kuchokera ku Lamulo la U.S., pamene kuli kwakuti boma lirilonse limatenga mphamvu yake kuchokera ku malamulo ake a boma ndi mphamvu zachibadwa za apolisi. Chifukwa chakuti ulamuliro wawo ngwopatukana, kumangidwa ndi mmodzi sikumaletsa kumangidwa ndi wina, ngakhale ngati onse aŵiriwo ali ozikidwa pa mkhalidwe wofanana.

Khoti Lalikulu linafotokoza bwino mfundo imeneyi mu United States v. Lanza . Lant: (1922): "Kuweruza kwa mlandu ndi ponse paŵiri wa dziko ndi ulamuliro wa boma kuli kulakwa kwa mtendere ndi ulemu wa onse aŵiri, ndipo kungalangidwe ndi aliyense. Khotilo linagogomezera kuti kuopsa kwa kaŵiri sikuletsa mafumu aŵiri osiyana kuchokera ku aliyense amene akubweretsa mlandu wawo, chifukwa "enses" amasiyana ndi boma la boma, kutsutsana ndi boma lina.

Nkhani Zake Za m’mbiri Ndiponso Mfundo Zofunika

Maziko Oyambirira: Zaka za m’ma 1800

Maziko a chiphunzitsocho amafikira ku kuyambiriro kwa jurispuldence ya ku America. Mu Fox v. Ohio [1] (18FLT:47), Bwalo loyamba linapereka lingaliro lakuti kachitidwe kamodzimodziko kangalangidwe pansi pa lamulo la boma ndi boma lomwe popanda kuswa kuopsa koŵirikiza. Lingaliro limeneli linapezanso kugawiridwa kowonjezereka mu Motre v. Illinois , (1852), kumene Khoti linakhulupirira kuti boma lingalange mlandu ngakhale ngati kachitidweko kanga kaswedwenso lamulo lolamulira, chifukwa chakuti maboma aŵiri anali "kugaŵikana ndi kusiyanitsa".

Milandu yoyambirira imeneyi inasonyeza dongosolo lalamulo la United States, kumene boma ndi maboma amagaŵana maulamuliro ogaŵana. Tenth Amendment isungilira ku maulamuliro amene sanaperekedwe ku boma, ndipo milingo yonse iŵiri ya boma yakhala ikulamulira kwa nthaŵi yaitali zochita zambiri zofananazo — kuyambira pa kuba ku banki kufika pa kuba mankhwala oledzeretsa ku milandu ya mfuti.

Chochitika cha Landmark: [[FLT: 0] United States v. Lanza [1] (1922)

Lanza [1] Lidakalibe chitsanzo chamakono. Woimbidwa mlandu anaimbidwa mlandu m'khoti la boma chifukwa choswa lamulo la National Prohibition Act , ndiyeno anazengedwa mlandu m'khoti la boma kaamba ka ka kachitidwe kamodzimodzika, kunyamula, ndi kukhala ndi zakumwa zoledzeretsa. Khoti Lapamwamba linachirikiza milandu iŵiri, likumamati maboma aŵiriwo anali odziimira okha ndi kuti chigamulocho sichinaletse mlandu wachiŵiri. Woweruza William Taft analemba kuti "offises pansi pa malamulo a United States ndi pansi pa malamulo a boma ndi oletsa. Khoti Lapamwambalo linachirikiza mabwalo amilandu aŵiriwo, ndipo lingalangidwe paokha.

The Modern Doctrine: [[FLT: 0] Gguedge v. United States (209)

Mu Griggl v. United States , Bwalo Lapamwamba linatsimikiziranso chiphunzitso cha uchifumu cha mbali ziŵiri ndi voti 7. Terance Gamble anaimbidwa mlandu m'bwalo la boma la Alabama chifukwa chokhala ndi mfuti monga womenya nkhondo, ndipo kenaka kuimbidwa mlandu wa boma kaamba ka khalidwe limodzimodzilo. Anatsutsa kuti chiphunzitsocho chiyenera kugwedezedwa, koma Khoti linakana, kugamula kuti chiphunzitsocho chinali "chokhazikika" ndi kuti Nyumba za Malamulo zinadalira pa icho pafupifupi zaka mazana aŵiri. Chigamulo cha Samuel Alito chinagogomezera kuti kulakwa koŵiri kunamvedwa panthaŵi ya kuyambika kwa chiyambire cha lamulo kuti chigwiritsiridwe ntchito mkati mwa mfumu imodzi yokha.

Kufotokoza Mosavuta Chiphunzitsocho Pochita Zinthu

Kuzenga Zinenezo Zosiyanasiyana ndi Zotulukapo Zochuluka

Chiyambukiro chogwira ntchito koposa cha chiphunzitso cha uchifumu wa mbali ziŵiri nchakuti munthu angayang’anizane ndi kuzengedwa kotsatizana m’khoti la boma ndi la boma kaamba ka kachitidwe kofananako. Zimenezi zingatsogolere ku zigamulo zowonjezereka, monga momwe olamulira onse aŵiri angaperekere chilango chosiyana.

Mlandu woimbidwa mlandu kapena kuimbidwa mlandu m’khoti lina, ukhoza kutha chifukwa chakuti boma kapena boma lingasankhe kudzibweretsera milandu yake, nthaŵi zina pambuyo pa zaka, malinga ndi zimene boma likufuna kuchita ndiponso zimene likufuna.

Nzeru Yoweruza ndi "Three" Federalism

Chiphunzitsochi chimaperekanso mphamvu kwa oweruza kuti aloŵe m'zimene nthaŵi zina zimatchedwa "universe countalism" . Kusankha chigawo chimene chimapereka malamulo abwino kwambiri a boma kapena a m'malamulo. Oweruza a boma angaloŵetsemo ngati mlandu wa boma utulukapo m’chiweruzo chofewa, kapena ngati mlanduwo ulephera chifukwa cha malamulo oonekera bwino. Mofananamo, oweruza a boma angatsatire lamulo loletsa ngati akhulupirira kuti lamulo la boma limapereka mpata wabwinopo wa kutsimikiza.

Kuchenjera kumeneku kwachititsa ochirikiza ufulu wa anthu kusuliza mwamphamvu, amene amatsutsa kuti chiphunzitso cha uchifumu cha aŵiri chimafooketsa kumalizira kolinganizidwa ndi Woweruza Wachiŵiri wa Mulungu Claus. Osuliza amatsutsa kuti chimalola boma kulola "kudyetsa maapozi aŵiri" ndipo oimbidwa mlanduwo ku chitsenderezo chachikulu ndi kuwonongetsa ndalama zambiri za mayeso.

Kugwiritsira Ntchito Uchifumu wa Fuko ndi Maboma Owopsa

Chiphunzitso cha uchifumu wamitundu iŵiri sichimalekezera ku unansi wa boma. Khoti Lapamwamba laikanso ilo kwa maboma a Eni America ndi maboma a dziko a U.S. monga Puerto Rico ndi District of Columbia. Mu United States v. Wheeler[FLT] [19788]), Khoti linagamula kuti fuko la Aindiya lingapereke chiŵalo kaamba ka upandu ndi boma la boma la boma likhozanso kuweruza kaamba ka ka ka kachitidwe kamodzimodziko, chifukwa chakuti ulamuliro wa fukolo unali "herinti" ndi wopatulidwa ku ulamuliro wa boma. Mofananamo, maboma amalingaliridwa kukhala achifumu kaamba ka zifuno zoŵirikiza, malinga ndi ulamuliro wawo kuchokera ku ulamuliro wa Congresssssporleant pa magawo ena.

Kusuliza ndi Kutsutsa

Kuchepetsa Madzi Oopsa

Kusuliza kwakukulu kwa chiphunzitso cha uchifumu wa mbali ziŵiri nchakuti icho chimatsutsa mwachindunji chinenero chofeŵa ndi chifuno cha Mabungwe aŵiri a Claus . Mawu amachinjiriza kukhala "aupandu" kaamba ka "chilango chimodzi" osuliza amatsutsa kuti pamene munthu waimbidwa mlandu kaŵiri kaamba ka mkhalidwe wofanana, iwo mosakaikira aikidwa m’ngozi kaŵiri kapena ngakhale ngati mabungwe aŵiriwo ali osiyana mwalamulo. Chiphunzitsocho, iwo amati, chimakweza mawonekedwe pa zinthu.

Jasitisi Ruth Bader Ginsburg, wotsutsana ndi [[FLT: 0] Gwidget, analongosola mwamphamvu lingaliro ili: "Chiphunzitso cha mbali ziŵiri za ulamuliro ndi chochokera m'mbiri yochokera m'nthano yachikale . kuti maulamuliro opatukana ndi anthu, ndi kuti kulakwana wina sikuli kulakwa kwa wina. Iye anatsutsa kuti chiphunzitsocho chiyenera kugonjetsedwa chifukwa chakuti chimalola boma kuchotsapo tsoka la kaŵiri kupyolera mwa njira yosavuta ya kukhala ndi oweruza aŵiri.

Kuipa kwa Midzi Yonse

Kufufuza kwa akatswiri a zamankhwala kukusonyeza kuti milandu iŵiri yokhudzana ndi kuchuluka kwa mafuko a anthu, makamaka anthu a mtundu wa Black ndi Latino. Boma la boma nthaŵi zambiri limapitiriza milandu ya boma pa milandu yapamwamba yokhudza kusamvera malamulo a apolisi, milandu ya mankhwala, ndi mfuti zaupandu . Kupatulana kwa mafuko mwalamulo kumalembedwa bwino. Zimenezi zachititsa nkhaŵa kuti chiphunzitsocho chikhale chosiyanitsa dongosolo mwa kulola boma ku "malamulo" milandu ndi zigamulo.

Ndiponso, oimbidwa mlandu opanda chuma chochuluka angakhale osakhoza kuwonjezera chitetezo chogwira ntchito m’maiko osiyanasiyana.

Kusagwirizana ndi Malamulo a Boma Olamulira

Akatswiri ena anenapo za kusakhazikika kowonekera: chiphunzitso cha ulamuliro wa mbali ziŵiri chimalingalira maboma kukhala odziimira pambali pa ngozi ziŵiri, komabe Kusintha kwa khumi ndi zisanu ndi chimodzi kaŵirikaŵiri kumaletsa maboma a anthu wamba m’khoti. Ngati maboma alidi olamulira, mkanganowo umapitiriza, sayenera kugonjera ku milandu ya boma. Chotero chiphunzitsocho chimawoneka kukhala chosankha pamene nkhani za ulamuliro zikukhala zokondweretsa kwa ozembetsa mmalo mwa kuchirikiza malamulo alamulo.

Zochitika Zaposachedwapa ndi Kusintha kwa Zinthu

Malo otsalirapo

Chigamulo cha Khoti Lalikulu cha 2019 mu kutsutsana kwa akatswiri. Akatswiri ena a zamalamulo alimbikitsa Nyumba za Malamulo kuchepetsa chiphunzitsocho mwalamulo, akutsutsa kuti kugulitsa mankhwala osokoneza bongo ku kuletsa kukhoma msonkho pa milandu ya ufulu wa anthu. Komabe, malingaliro a akatswiri 7 - 2 akutsutsana ndi akatswiri omwe akupitirizabe. Olemba malamulo alimbikitsa Nyumba za Malamulo kuti zichepetse chiphunzitsocho mwalamulo, akutsutsa kuti kugulitsanso mankhwala osokoneza bongo kuyenera kumvetsetsedwa ku zigamu zobwezera mlandu wotsatirapo mlandu wofananawo mosasamala kanthu za oimira a mfumu.

Poyankha, maboma angapo akhazikitsa malamulo amene amaletsa kuzenga mlandu boma pambuyo pa kuzengedwa mlandu kwa boma kaamba ka kachitidwe kofananako, koma malamulo ameneŵa ngosadziŵika ndi a lamulo losatsimikizirika pansi pa Supremacy Claus. lamulo la Federal mwachiwonekere likafunikira kuti apange kusintha kwadongosolo.

Ziphunzitso Zomwe Zinasintha M’nthaŵi ya Kunenezedwa Mopitirira

Lamulo lamakono laupandu limawonjezapo kuwonjezereka kwa ulamuliro wa boma ndi boma. Nyumba ya Malamulo yachititsa ntchito zambiri zimene zinali zachibalo m’boma, monga ngati kuba, kuukira, ndi kupha . Kuphatikizapo kuyendetsa malonda a mayiko ena. Kuphatikizapo chiphunzitso cha ulamuliro wa mitundu iŵiri, imatanthauza kuti upandu uliwonse waukulu ungaikidwe mlandu kaŵiri. Chotulukapo chake ndicho njira imene kuwopseza kwa oimbidwa mlandu aŵiri amaumirira pa anthu ambiri oimbidwa mlandu.

Kuyerekezera Kwapadziko Lonse

Maiko ena ochepa amalola kumangidwanso motsatizana ndi maulamuliro osiyanasiyana a khalidwe limodzimodzilo. Madongosolo a boma ochuluka, kuphatikizapo Germany, Canada, ndi Australia, amagwiritsira ntchito lamulo limodzi: munthu atayesedwa kaamba ka ka kachitidwe, iwo sangayesedwenso kaamba ka ka kachitidwe kamodzi kameneko ndi boma lina m'dziko limodzi. United States imaima kokha pakati pa maiko a malamulo amodzi omamatira ku chiphunzitso cha uchifumu. Kutsika kumeneku kwachititsa akatswiri ena a zamalamulo a mitundu yonse kuvomereza kuti United States apendenso njira yake ya kugwirizanitsa ndi zoyenera zamakono za anthu, zimene kaŵirikaŵiri zimaletsa kuwopsa koŵirikiza kaŵiri ku mlingo wonse wa boma.

Kusamalira Akatswiri Oona za Malamulo

Zotetezera Mbalame

Maloya a zachitetezo ayenera kulangiza makasitomala za kuthekera kwa kumangidwa kwa milandu iŵiri pazigawo zoyambirira za mlandu. Ngati wozenga mlandu wa m'bwalo la boma, uphungu uyenera kupenda ngati milandu ya boma iri yothekera ndipo, ngati nditero, kaya masitepe alionse apadera angachitidwe kuchepetsa chiyambukiro chawo. Nthaŵi zina, kuchonderera kwa boma limodzi kungaphatikizepo pangano lopanda kuphedwa kwa wolamulira wina, koma mapangano oterowo ali oyenera ndipo samatsimikizirika.

Ma adokotala ayeneranso kudziŵa za "kulakwa kwa polisi" kopatuka: chiphunzitso cha uchifumu cha mbali ziŵiri sichimagwira ntchito pamene mlandu woyamba uli wa mlandu waung’ono wosalangidwa ndi kuikidwa m'ndende, chifukwa chakuti kulakwa kwaŵiri kwa Jeopardy Claus mee sikumagwira ntchito pa nkhani imeneyo. Kuwonjezerapo, ngati mabwalo aŵiriwo alidi mlandu umodzimodziwo pansi pa . Kuyesa (kumene kumafunsa ngati mlandu uliwonse umafuna umboni wa chenicheni chinacho sati), bwalo lamilandu lingapezebe kutsutsidwa koŵirikiza kaŵiri, ngakhale kuti uchifumu wa mbali ziŵiriyo kaŵirikaŵiri umatsutsa.

Kwa Oweruza

Oweruza ayenera kugwiritsa ntchito mwanzeru posankha kaya ngati angapereke milandu pambuyo pa wolamulira wina amene waimbidwa mlandu. Pamene kuli kwakuti chiphunzitsocho chimalola masumo aŵiri, sizimafuna. Ofesi zambiri za Attorney za U.S. zili ndi malamulo a m’kati amene amaletsa kubweretsa milandu ya boma pambuyo pa chitsimikizo cha boma pokhapo ngati chilangocho chinali chosakwanira kapena ngati mlanduwo unaphatikizapo zikondwerero zazikulu za boma, zonga kuswa ufulu wa anthu kapena kugulitsa mankhwala osokoneza bongo monkitsa.

Department of Justice ya United States (1960), kaŵirikaŵiri imalamula boma pambuyo pa kuzenga mlandu kofananako pokhapo ngati Attleney General kapena woimira. Lamulo limeneli limapereka chitetezo chofunika koma silimalamulira oweruza a boma, amene angapitirizebe.

Kumaliza: Kulinganiza Ulamuliro ndi Kuchita Zinthu Mwachilungamo

Chiphunzitso cha uchifumu wa aŵiri chimaimira chosankha chadala m'lamulo la U.S. kuika pa malo oyamba ufulu ndi ulamuliro wa maboma ambiri pa kufunitsitsa kwa munthu aliyense. Chimasonyeza masomphenya a opanga maulansi a dongosolo la boma kumene onse aŵiri boma ndi maboma ali ndi mphamvu zosungitsa. Komabe masomphenyawo amabwera pa mtengo: chiphunzitsocho chimagawana ndi anthu ku kuthekera kwenikweni kwa kuganiziridwa kwa maupandu, ziganizo zambiri, ndi mitolo yogwirizana ndi kuperekedwa kwa mayeso.

Pamene dongosolo la chiweruzo chaupandu la ku America likupitiriza kusinthika, chiphunzitso cha uchifumu cha mbali ziŵiri chidzakhalabe chochititsa mkangano wokangalika. Ena amatsutsa kuti chiri chiŵiya chofunika chothetsera upandu ndi kutsimikizira kuti palibe woimbidwa mlandu amathaŵa chiweruzo; ena amatsutsa kuti chiri chopanda chilungamo chimene chimafooketsa zitetezero zazikulu za Jeopardiy Claus. Chowonekeratu nchakuti aliyense amene akugwira ntchito mkati kapena kuphunzira U.S. dongosolo la malamulo liyenera kumvetsetsa chiphunzitso chimenechi ndi zotulukapo zake. Chiphunzitso cha mtsogolo chingadali chodalira pa kaya Khoti Lapamwamba, Congress, kapena maboma asankha kulinganizadi kulinganiza kwa ulamuliro pakati pa ulamuliro ndi ufulu wa munthu.

Kuti muŵerengenso, onani lingaliro la Khoti Lalikulu mu [FLT: 0]. [FLT :1] Griggnev . United States[FLT :2] [[FLT ] (2017]), mlandu wosonyeza [[FLT]] United States v. Lanza [1] [1922] [-kapenye ya Kufufuza kwa Congresssionerrence pa [[FLT:] Jeoppy ndi Dual Commage . Kufufuza kwina kungapezeke m'nkhani zonga za malamulo zonga "Uchifumu: Chiphunzitso cha Histolictic ACrical" (kupezeka mwa: [FUmwina]]