Tsogolo la Ulamuliro wa Boma Ligwirizana Poona Zosankha za Khoti Lalikulu Laposachedwapa

Chiphunzitso cha kutetezera ulamuliro wa boma chachinjiriza kwa nthaŵi yaitali maboma ku milandu yaumwini m’khoti la boma popanda chilolezo. Chozikidwa pa Kusintha kwa Khumi ndi Chisanu ndi Chisanu ndi Chimodzi ndi zaka mazana ambiri kwa lamulo wamba, lamulo limeneli limalinganiza ulemu ndi kudzisankhira kwa maboma ndi kufunika kwa kuŵerengera kwa munthu aliyense. Komabe, zigamulo za Bwalo Lapamwamba Laposachedwapa zayesa malire a otetezera ufulu wa munthu aliyense m’madera osiyanasiyana kuyambira pa ulamuliro wa fuko la munthu kumka ku ufulu wachipembedzo ndi uyang’aniro wa boma. Pamene Khoti likupitirizabe kuwongolera njira yake, mafunso ponena za kufunika kwa chiphunzitsocho, maziko ake alamulo, ndi ziyambukiro zake zamtsogolo zidakalibe zazikulu kwa jariso ku American.

Chigamulo cha boma chodzitetezera sichili chotheratu; Nyumba ya Malamulo ingachithetseretu m’mikhalidwe ina, ndipo maboma angavomereze modzifunira kuvomereza. Komabe zigamulo za Khotilo m’zaka makumi atatu zapitazo zakhala zomangirira kuchepetsa ndi kuwongolera pamene chitetezo chikugwira ntchito m’makhoti a boma. Kumvetsetsa zimenezi kumafuna kupenda mizu ya mbiri yakale, milandu yaikulu yamakono, ndi makambitsirano a zamalamulo amene adzapanga chiphunzitsocho m’zaka zikubwerazi.

Kuchokera kwa Ulamuliro wa Boma Wolamulira

Lamulo lakuti wolamulira sangaikidwe mlandu popanda chilolezo chake kubwerera ku lamulo la Chingelezi ndipo linavomerezedwa ndi maiko a ku America. Pambuyo pa kuvomerezedwa kwa Konsichushoni, chigamulo cha Khoti Lapamwamba mu 1793 mu Cyhoolm v. Georgia analola nzika zachinsinsi kusungirira maboma a boma m'bwalo la boma, kusonkhezera kutsata mofulumira kwa Demendment ya Demetription mu 1795. Malamulowo anapereka kuti: “Ufumu wa United States sudzavomerezedwa kufutukula ku chiyeso cha lamulo lirilonse kapena eury, kuyambitsidwa kapena kutsutsa umodzi wa nzika za United States ndi nzika za Boma lina, kapena nzika za Dziko lina.

M’kupita kwa nthawi, khotili linawonjezera mfundo ya kuwonjezera pa mawu enieni. Hans v. Louisiana (1890), khotilo linanena kuti anthu a m’dziko lawo sakufuna kulowa m’masuti, pokhapokha ngati boma lavomereza kuti bungwe la Demendment la Demendment likufuna kuteteza boma. Kupewa zimenezi kumalowa m’khoti la boma kuti likhale ndi ufulu wodzilamulira.

Komabe, chiphunzitso cha boma chotetezera thupi siliri, chitetezero chachiphaso. Khoti lazindikira kuti si masuti obweretsedwa ndi United States, zochita zotsutsana ndi akuluakulu a boma kaamba ka chiwongolero cha kuyembekezera pansi pa Ex pate Young, ndi zochitika zimene boma limaletsa kutetezedwa. Ndiponso, maboma satetezeka ku masuti m'makhoti awo pamene malamulo a boma apereka mankhwala. Malamulowa alenga malo ovuta amene Khoti likupitiriza kuyendera.

Zochitika Zakale ndi Kusintha kwa Chisinthiko kwa Khumi ndi Lachisanu ndi Chimodzi

Nkhani zoyambirira monga Nation v. Georgia (1831) adafanizira kuseŵera pakati pa ulamuliro wa fuko ndi chitetezo cha boma. Khotilo linanena kuti Cherokee Nation si “dziko lachilendo” pansi pa Kaganizo III ndipo chifukwa chake Georgia mwachindunji m'bwalo lalikulu. Pamene chigamulo chimenechi sichinafotokoze mwachindunji chitetezero cha ufulu wa dziko, chinazindikira kuti mafuko onse ndi maboma ali ndi ufulu wachifumu umene uli ndi mphamvu zalamulo pa iwo. Pambuyo pake, Mbali yaikulu ya Chigawo cha Young (19108), Khoti linalemba mlandu wotsutsa: akuluakulu a boma anganene kuti apitirize kuswa lamulo la boma, ngati chidalephera kulephera kutsutsa chiphunzitso chofunika.

Nyengo yamakono ya kudzitetezera kwalamulo inayamba ndi Planshurst State School & Hospital v. Halderman (19984), yomwe inakhulupirira kuti makhoti a Expoleth Amendment a boma amaletsa akuluakulu a boma kutsatira lamulo la boma. Khoti linagogomezera kuti malamulo a boma amafuna ulemu wa boma, ngakhale pamene lamulo la boma lingapereke maziko a chithandizo. Ichi chinalimbikitsa lingaliro lakuti kutetezera kwa ufumu sikuli kokha chitetezero chalamulo chalamulo.

Zigamulo zaposachedwapa za Khoti Lalikulu Zimatsutsa Ulamuliro wa Mfumu

M’zaka makumi atatu zapitazo, Bwalo Lapamwamba lapereka mpambo wa zigamulo zapadera zimene zamveketsa ndi kuchepetsa ukulu wa chitetezo cha boma. Zigamulo zimenezi zimasonyeza Bwalo Lamilandu logaŵikana, lokhala ndi zigamulo zosunga mwambo kaŵirikaŵiri zimayanja kuchinjirizidwa kwakukulu ndi zigamulo zochirikiza kuŵerengera kokulira. Milandu yotsatirayi iri yofunika kwambiri.

Seminole Friest of Florida v. Florida (1996)

Chigamulo chamakono chogwirizana ndi lamulo la kudzilamulira ndicho Skinole Tribun ya Florida v. Florida , 517 U.S.1996). M'chigamulo cha 5-4, Khoti linavomereza kuti Court siingathetsetsetse chitseko cha boma pansi pa malamulo ake, monga Commus Communic Classian E. Nkhaniyo inabuka kuchokera ku Aindiyaning Relication Act, imene inalola mafuko kulephera kukambirana mfundo za chikhulupiriro chabwino. Khoti la Court inalamulira chigamu chachikulu cha Chigamu chachikulu . Gas Union . [FLT.]

Chigamulo chinasonkhezera kuthamanga Tribe [1] Mokhutiritsa kukhoza kwa Nyumba ya Malamulo kwa kuchititsa malamulo aumwini kaamba ka ziwombolo pansi pa malamulo ambiri a boma, kuphatikizapo aja onena za kulephera kwa ndalama, chuma, ndi malonda a chigawo. Chigamulo chinasonkhezera kugalukirana kwa maufumu kuti athe kuswa malamulo a boma. Zochitika zonga Zosungira Bank v. Florida Prefereary Secondary Education Coast Office Board [[FL: 3] (1999]) ndi [FLC] Frolitavia yopatsirapo post Educations . College . College Bank . . College .Buck Bank .[F.9]

Alden v. Maine (1999)

Mu Alden v. Maine, 527 U.S. 706 (1999), khoti linakamba ngati kutetezera ufulu wa munthu kumagwira ntchito m'khoti. Oyang'anira ozengedwa mlandu, anasumira boma la Maine m'makhoti ake kaamba ka malipiro owonjezereka pansi pa Malamulo a Mkhalidwe wa Opaleshoni. Khotilo linakhulupirira kuti chitetezo chopezedwa ndi maboma chimafikira ku masuti m’khoti, makamaka pamene suti yagonana ndi lamulo la boma. Ambiri analingalira kuti “malamulo a boma akukhala ndi ulamuliro wa boma, ndi kuti malamulo a zaka khumi ndi zisanu ndi chimodzi samakhala magwero okha a kusungidwa; m’malo mwake, chisonyezero cha ufulu wa ufulu wa dziko limene limakhala ndi chigamulo choikidwa choikidwa choikidwa choyenerera choikidwa choloŵanetsa cha lamulo chotsutsa lamulo cha boma chirichonse cha boma, popanda chigamulo cha chigamulo cha chikalata cha lamulo chovomerezedwa chovomerezedwa ndi chikalata cha lamulo chalamulo chachi, kapena chigamu chigawo chachi.

Jasitisi Souter anatsutsa, akumanena kuti kulingalira kwa unyinji kunali kolakwika m'mbiri ndi kuti kuchinjiriza kwa kudziimira kwa munthu m’khoti la boma sikunalinganiziridwe kutetezera maboma kuchokera ku masuti ozikidwa pa lamulo la boma. Kukana kunagogomezera kutsutsana kwa malamulo a boma ndi kusungidwa kwa zoyenera za boma. Mosasamala kanthu za kusuliza, Alden ikali maziko a chiphunzitso chamakono cha kudzitetezera.

Federal Maritime Commission v. South Carolina Ports Authority (2002)

Khotilo linawonjezera ufulu wokana kuletsa nkhani zina zauyang'anira Federal Maritime Commission v. South Carolina Ports Authority , 535 U.S. 733 (2002). Federal Maritime Commission inayamba kukhazikitsa chilolezo chotsutsana ndi South Carolina Ports Authority pambuyo pa kampani yachinsinsi yodandaula za tsankho pozemba ndalama zolipirira. Khotilo linakhulupirira kuti malamulo a Khulungo la Khumiko la 115 la ulemu ndi la ufulu ndi ligaŵi la boma la boma la boma, ngakhale pamene lisakhale loyenerera. Chigamulo chinatse magulu a anthu ofufuza chithandizo ku mayiko otsutsa boma kudzera m’mabungwe, pokhapokha boma logwirizana ndi boma logamula milandu.

Fulton ndi mzinda wa Philadelphia (2021)

Pamene kuli kwakuti ndi . Mzinda wa Philadelphia , 593 U.S_ (2021), wokhudza kwambiri ufulu wa chipembedzo pansi pa Kusintha Koyamba, ziyambukiro zake za kutetezera ufulu wa kudziimira nzofunika. Nkhaniyo inabuka kuchokera ku Deladelphia yonena za ana ku Free Expression (CSS) chifukwa chakuti CSS anakana kukhazikitsa mabanja amodzi osakhala a chipembedzo. Mzindawo sunapereke chitetezero chotheratu choletsa CSS m'chigonjezo cha m’mbuyomo cha kuchepetsa CS. Komabe, lamulo la Khotilo lochepalo lopatulalo la kuletsa kuloŵerera kupyo mwa kukhazikitsa malamulo a chipembedzo chosiyana ndi kuwonjezera. [chigonjezo]

Kuwonjezerapo, Fulton [FLT :1] imasiya kuthekera kwakuti makhoti a boma angalole mosavuta masuti otsutsana ndi akuluakulu a boma kaamba ka malamulo ozikidwa pa kuswa lamulo, ngakhale pamene boma likhalabe losatetezereka ku zowonongeka. Nkhaniyo imasonyeza kuti kutetezera ufulu wa munthu sindiko choletsa kusungitsa ufulu wonse walamulo; kwakukulukulu kumawononga machitidwe ndi sutiti m’malo amene boma limakhala chipani chenicheni.

Nkhani Zazikulu ndi Kufunsiridwa Kwake Kokulira

Zotsatira zowonjezereka za zosankha zimenezi zakhala kulimbitsa chitetezo cha boma m’zigawo za boma ndi m’zigawo pamene kumanga nyumba za Congress kuli kuthekera kwa kuswa lamulo. Pansipa pali kulongosola mwachidule kwa milandu yokhudza kwambiri anthu ndi tanthauzo lake pa nkhani zosiyanasiyana za malamulo.

  • .[FLT .1] Nation v. Georgia (1831): yoikidwa kuti mafuko sali “maiko akunja” kaamba ka zifuno za Mfundo III, kuzindikira kotheratu kuti maboma ndi mafuko amagaŵana ndi masuti. Nkhaniyi idakali yokhudzana ndi mikangano yamakono ya mafuko pa kutchova juga, chuma chachilengedwe, ndi ulamuliro.
  • [FLT .1] SEMINOLE FURY of Florida v. Florida (1996] : adaona kuti Congress sangatetezere ufulu wa boma pansi pa mfundo zamphamvu. Masuti ameneŵa achinsinsi a kuvulaza maboma pansi pa malamulo onga Fair Labor Direct, Americanding Act (Adit I), ndi Kupatula kwa Nyengo mu Act, pokhapokhapo ngati Congress imachita chigawo 5 cha Department ya 147.
  • Alden v. Maine [FLT :1999]: chitetezo choyalidwa ku makhoti a boma kaamba ka zikalata za boma. Monga chotulukapo, antchito a boma sangapereke mlandu kwa bwana wawo kaamba ka kuswa malipiro ndi ola kwa boma m'bwalo lirilonse kusiyapo ngati boma livomereza moyenerera mawindo a nyumba kupyola m'Chigawo 5.
  • Féderal Maritime Commission v. South Carolina Ports Authority [2002] (2002]:] chitetezo choyanjidwa cha ulamuliro wa boma. Zipani za anthu sizingagwiritsire ntchito njira zokakamiza kuti zigwirizane ndi malamulo a boma; ayenera kudalira pa malamulo osungitsa malamulo a boma lenilenilo.
  • Fulton v. Mzinda wa Philadelphia (2021): pamene kuli kwakuti sichigamulo chaufulu chachindunji, chinachirikiza chiphunzitso Chaching'ono cha kupatsa chithandizo m'malamulo. Maboma sangapereke chitetezero ku masuti a akuluakulu a ufulu walamulo womangidwa ndi ufulu walamulo wopitirizabe.

Nkhani zimenezi pamodzi zimapanga dongosolo limene maboma akusangalala ndi kuchinjirizidwa kokulirapo kwa milandu yaumwini, koma ndi kusiyapo kwakukulu kaamba ka chithandizo ndi suti zobweretsedwa ndi boma. Mitoloyo tsopano njolemera pa ofufuza achinsinsi ofunafuna kusungitsa zoyenera za boma zotsutsana ndi maboma, kaŵirikaŵiri kuwafuna kusonyeza kuti Msonkhano unalinganizidwira kuchinjiriza kochitidwa ndi lamulo lovomerezedwa ndi boma.

Malangizo ndi Mavuto a M’tsogolo

Chiphunzitso cha Khoti Lalikulu chimapereka lingaliro lakuti chitetezo cha boma chodzilamulira chidzakhalabe chodzitetezera mwamphamvu m’nkhani zambiri, koma nkhani zingapo zosathetsedwa ndi kusintha kothekera zingasinthe chiphunzitsocho.

Kusintha kwa Nyumba ya Malamulo Pansi pa Chigawo 5 cha Lamulo la 14

Khotilo lakhala likutsutsa kuti Nyumba ya Malamulo ingaletse kutetezeredwa kwa boma kwa ufulu pamene ikukhazikitsa chitsimikizo cha 144 cha Kusintha kwa Zamoyo, monga mu Doroba la Boerne v. Flores (1997]) ndi [[FLT]] [FLT] [NUT] NVADA] Department of Human Resource v. [200] [200]] [Mu ] Habs, Bwalo linachirikiza ufulu pansi pa malamulo a Zachithandizo ndi za kulephera kwa kuyang'anira kwa banja ndi za kulephera kwa zigawando zamphamvu. Komabe, [kufufuza] m’malamulo a Aidvolmo lokwanira kwa anthu ovutika (F.51], ngati chigamuyezo cha kulephera kulephera kutsimikizira kwa chikalata cha kulephera kwa kugawagonso, kapena kulephera kwa chiwonjeko, ngati chigawa cha AD. Chikhoswe chakuga

Boma Livomereza ndi Waiver

Maboma angawononge chitetezo cha mbuye mwa kuvomereza, kaya mwapadera kapena mwa kutenga nawo mbali m'maprogramu a boma amene amapindula pa kuwonongeka kwa zinthu. Khotilo lamasulira kulakwa kwapadera: mu Sossamon v. Texas, adakhulupirira kuti kulandira ndalama za boma pansi pa Dziko Lamalamulo Likugwiritsira ntchito ndi Constigaledalaltive Act sikunapanga chitetezero cha chitetezo. Mofananamo, Ofesi ya Chitetezo cha Kutetezera ndi Advoctacy . "201] adakhulupirira kuti sikumapanga chigamu cha kubweretsa njira yokha yobweretsa. Zosankha za mtsogolo zidzanena za mmene [[FLT.] , mofanana ndi mmene zigamu za kuyenera kuwonjezera kuloŵereramo ndi kugawana kwa otsutsa. "FLct:3]

Kuthandiza Kumagawo Atsopano: Sayansi, Kusintha kwa Nyengo, ndi Mfuti

Kuphatikiza madera a kuchuluka kwa mabomba obisika , monga ngati kuswa chidziŵitso kwa mabungwe a boma, kusintha kwa nyengo ndi zinthu zotetezera boma, ndi zitokoso za kukhazikitsa malamulo a mfuti. Mwachitsanzo, pansi pa Health Inshuwalance Portability ndi Accouting Act (HIPAA), mamembala sangasunge maulamuliro a mabomba chifukwa chakuti HIPAA salimbana ndi chitetezo cha dziko. Mofananamo, kusintha kwa nyengo kochititsidwa ndi magulu a anthu odziimira kuteteza kapena kusefukira kwa zinthu pabwalo la boma. Khoti ingafunsidwe kusankha kaya zochita zina za boma (m. g., kuyendetsa malasha) kuumba chotetezera kapena kulephera kwa anthu opatuka.

Ponena za Kusintha kwachiŵiri, pambuyo pa New York State Rifle & Pistol Association v. Bruen[FL:1] [2022], malamulo a boma amfuti akuyang'anizana ndi kupendedwa kowonjezereka. Malamulo otsutsa malamulowo angafunefune malamulo otsutsana ndi akuluakulu a boma pansi pa Ex padesiki Young , koma sangathe kupeza chivulazo ku boma lenilenilo. Khotilo lokhudzana ndi malamulo a lingatsegule khomo kaamba ka chithandizo chosamalitsa chimene chimatsutsa.

Kusintha Koyenera ndi Koweruza

Akatswiri ena apereka lingaliro la kulola Nyumba ya Malamulo ya khumi ndi chimodzi kuchinjiriza otetezera ku matenda pansi pa Mfundo I, mwakutero kuchotsa Séminole Tribe [1]. Ena amachirikiza malamulo a boma akuti malamulo a boma aloleza ndalama za boma zotetezera ku chitetezero cha zinthu zinazake zotsimikizirika, ndipo zioneka kuti khoti silinathe kuikwaniritsa bwinobwino. Pakhoti, khotilo likhoza kuchepetsa mphamvu ya kuteteza ufulu wa munthu mwa kuwerenganso mfundo za Lachisanu ndi chimodzi, kuchepetsa ndalamazo kuti likhale ndi ndalama zotetezera zofunikira pa mfundo zenizeni zofunikira kulongosola mfundozo, koma zimenezi zikuoneka kuti sizikuperekedwa bwino lomwe Khoti lango lango lango.

Kusintha kwina kothekera ndiko kugwiritsira ntchito kokulira kwa Sex Young nthano zongopeka kulola masuti otsutsana ndi maofesala a boma ngakhale pamene mankhwalawo afuna kuchitidwa ndi boma. Mwachitsanzo, mu Whell’s Health . Hellerstt [[FLT ] [20] , Khoti linalola kutsutsa lamulo la Texas loletsa kuchotsa mimba popanda kutetezera. Malamulo aakulu a boma angawone kuwonjezereka kapena kugwirizanitsa chiphunzitso chimenechi kudalira pa lamulo la lamulo lalamulo pamtengo.

Kumaliza

Tsogolo la kutetezera ulamuliro wa boma lidzaumbidwa ndi kufunitsitsa kwa Khoti Lalikulu kumamatira ku zotsatizana zake zozikidwa pa boma ndi kukhoza kwa Congress kwa kupanga malamulo amene amapulumuka kupendedwa kwa lamulo pansi pa Chigawo 5. Koyamba tsopano, maboma ali ndi chitetezo chokulira kuchokera ku ku kupekedwa kwaumwini, koma kusiyapo kaamba ka kumasuka ndi suti zoyamwitsidwa ndi boma la boma kumawasunga iwo kukhala odziŵerengera mlandu kaamba ka kuswa malamulo kopanda lamulo. Aphunzitsi, ophunzira, ndi opanga malamulo alamulo ayenera kuyang’anira milandu imene ikubwera monga ziletso za boma, malamulo achilengedwe, ndi malamulo otsenderetsa, ndi malamulo ovotera.

Kutsutsana pakati pa ulamuliro wa boma ndi ufulu wa munthu aliyense sikungathetsedwe kotheratu. Pamene khotilo likupitirizabe kupenda zikondwerero zopikisana zimenezi, chiphunzitso cha kutetezera ufulu wa munthu kukhala wodziimira paokha chidzakhalabe chosuliza / ndipo kaŵirikaŵiri chidzakhala chotsutsana ndi malamulo a America. Kumvetsetsa zosankha zaposachedwapa ndi maziko awo nkofunika kwa aliyense wofuna kuyendetsa malamulo a boma m’zaka za zana la 21.