Mathayo a maboma a boma amapanga malo amodzi a boma la America, kuumba miyoyo ya tsiku ndi tsiku ya mamiliyoni mwa maphunziro, chisungiko cha anthu onse, umoyo, maziko, uyang'aniro wa chilengedwe, ndi chilungamo. Pamene kuli kwakuti malamulo a U.S. amapereka mphamvu zina ku boma, Tenth Amendment imasunga maulamuliro ena onse ku maboma. Maulamuliro ameneŵa si ovuta; amayesedwa ndi kufotokozedwa ndi zochitika zenizeni zimene zimakhazikitsa malamulo ndi kuvumbula mavuto othandiza a ulamuliro. Mwa kupenda zigamulo za khoti ndi zochitika zazikulu, tingaone mmene amakwanitsirira ndi ntchito zawo zofunika.

Maphunziro ndi Sukulu Zapoyera

Maphunziro mwinamwake ali thayo lowoneka kwambiri la maboma. Maboma amafunikira kupereka maphunziro a boma, kuika miyezo ya maphunziro, aphunzitsi ovomerezeka, ndi kugaŵira ndalama. Ntchito imeneyi inalinganizidwa kwambiri ndi mlandu wa Khoti Lalikulu la 1954 Brown v. Bungwe la Maphunziro [, lomwe linalengeza kuti kusankhana mafuko m'masukulu anaswa Community Classie of the 1450 Constmentmentivement. Chigamulochi chinakakamiza maboma kuchotsa de jureption, kutsimikizira ntchito ya boma kutsimikizira mwaŵi wofanana wa kuphunzitsa mwana aliyense. Pamene chigamulo chinali kutembenuza, kuyendetsa kosiyanasiyana, kutsogolera ku zaka makumi ambiri za nkhondo za devrease.

Kupereka Ndalama za Sukulu ndi Kusungana

Boma limalamuliranso mmene sukulu za boma zimayendetsera ndalama, kaŵirikaŵiri kudalira kwambiri pa misonkho yakwawo. Dongosolo limeneli linatsutsidwa mu San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez [1] (1973]. Maboma ambiri anatsutsa kuti njira ya kuthandizira ndalama za Texas inayambitsa kugaŵanitsa kwakukulu pakati pa zigawo zachuma ndi osauka, kuswa malamulo a malamulo. Khoti Lapamwamba linagamula kuti maphunziro si kumanja kwapamwamba pansi pa malamulo a boma. Chigamulo cha kumanzere cha kutchula ndalama za kulipira ndalama pa iwo okha. Mayiko ambiri adayang'anizana ndi nkhondo zawo za khoti, chitsanzo cha [FLD:] Abroff. Burk . v[FFFFF:3] Mu New Jersey3, khoti lamilandu lalikulu lolamulira milandu.

Miyezo ya Kayendetsedwe ka Malamulo ndi Kuŵerengera

Kupyola pa kupereka ndalama, amakhazikitsa miyezo ya maphunziro ndi ziyeso. No Child Lend Behind Act (2001) ndipo pambuyo pake The Secondary Frievereds Act (2015) Udindo waukulu unayambiranso ku maboma ponena za kuŵerengera. Mwachitsanzo, Massachusetts atengera madongosolo ovuta amene kaŵirikaŵiri amaposa avareji ya dziko, pamene ena adayang'anizana ndi kutsutsidwa kaamba ka kutsika kwa miyezo. Zochitika zenizeni zonga [FLT: 0] Horne v. Florares [1] [FLT: 1] (2009) adafufuza ngati maprogramu a English Language Learner Language akwaniritsa zifuno za boma, kutsimikizira ntchito ya maphunziro kuti ophunzira onse atumikira mogwira mtima. Chipwiritsirano chosatha pakati pa ulamuliro cha boma ndi ulamuliro chimapanga mbali chachikulu cha thayo la udindo.

Thanzi la Anthu Onse ndi Chitetezo

Maboma ndiwo mzera woyambirira wa thanzi la anthu, kuyang'anira kuyang'anira matenda, kuyang'anira chipatala, mautumiki a zachipatala, ndi inshuwalansi ya zachipatala. Nkhani yotchuka Jaconson v. Massachusetts (05) anatsimikizira mphamvu ya apolisi kukhazikitsa malamulo okakamiza a katemera kuti athandize anthu onse. Iye akuletsa Jacobson kuletsa katemera wa nthomba, kutsutsana naye ufulu wake; Khoti Lapamwamba linachirikiza ufulu wa boma wofuna kupatsidwa katemera, kulinganiza ufulu wolimbana ndi anthu. Nkhani imeneyi idakalipo m'kabe m'kangano wamakono pa machiritso a CHOD, makamaka mlirigu, kumene maboma akulamulira malamulo oletsa kuteteza malo, ndi makolenti oletsa makoleji, ndi mapepala a zamankhwala nthaŵi zonse.

Kukonzekera kwa Mwadzidzidzi ndi Kulabadira Ngozi

Maboma ali ndi thayo lalikulu la kukonzekera ndi kuchitapo kanthu ku masoka achilengedwe ndi zamwadzidzidzi. Kuyankha koopsa kwa [FLT: 0] Hurricane Katrina mu 2005 kuvumbula kulephera kwakukulu kwa boma. Malamulo a Louisiana ochedwa oletsa, osagwirizana ndi mabungwe a boma, ndipo chuma chakumeneko chachititsa imfa zikwi zambiri ndi kuvutika kwakukulu. Kufufuza kochitidwa ndi Government Activity Ofes Office [ kulimbikitsa kusintha kwakukulu m'makonzedwe a zamwadzidzidzi. Lerolino, monga Florida ndi Texas ali ndi kuyankha kwamphamvu kwa , koma monga mphepo yofanana ndi kumangidwa kwa Puerto Rico (U. Gawo la U. gawo lofanana ndi udindo wofanana ndi kuyesa mayeso a boma. [F.Foctive-s Active]

Thanzi la M’malo Okhala ndi Mpweya Woyera

Maboma amatetezeranso thanzi la anthu kupyolera m'lamulo la malo okhala. Massachusetts . Environmental Protection Agency (2007), Bwalo Lapamwamba linagamula kuti EPA inali ndi ulamuliro wolamulira mpweya wotenthetsa dziko pansi pa Diease Act, koma mlandu unayambitsidwa ndi boma lofuna kukakamiza ntchito ya boma. Chigamulo chimenechi chakhazikitsa ufulu wa maboma a boma kusudzutsa mabungwe a boma chifukwa cha kulephera kutetezera malo okhala. Maboma ena, monga California, apita patsogolo mwa kugwiritsa ntchito miyezo yawo yolimba ya m’mlengalenga. [[FLT.FLT:2] Kachipang'kan'ka kamodzi kamodzi kachitidwe kake kake ka zinthu za m'dziko.

Zoyendera Ndiponso Zinthu Zowonongeka

Boma lili ndi maboma ambiri ndi kusungitsa misewu ya dzikolo, mabilosi, ndi madongosolo a zaulendo. Iwo amalamuliranso malonda a dziko, malaisensinsi a galimoto, ndi kukhazikitsa malamulo a pamsewu. Kuphatikiza pakati pa boma ndi boma mu zoyendera n’kovuta, monga momwe kwasonyezedwera ndi United States v. California . California . [FLT:] [1978].[1] Mlatho wa . Mlambo wa , Khoti Lapamwamba linamenya lamulo la California lomwe linawomba malamulo a boma a Suprey Claus. Komabe, likusunga ulamuliro waukulu pa misewu ndi kuyendetsa misewu.

Kupereka Zopereka Zomangamanga

Maboma amadalira pa msanganizo wa misonkho ya boma, malipiro a galimoto, ndi boma kupereka ndalama zothandizira kumanga nyumba. American Recovement and Reinvestment Act ya 2009 ya mabiliyoni ambiri "yakhala yatha" ntchito, zosonkhezera chuma chakumeneku pamene mukukonza misewu ndi milatho. [FLT:] Kukonzanso ndi kukonzanso kwa Mitengo ya Ntchito [200] [2001] ikukwaniritsa ntchito ina ya boma yomanga nyumba zoposa zaka zisanu. Maprojekiti, kuyang'anira nyumba, ndi kutsimikizira kuti malo okhalako. Maupandu ngati [FLD:]

Kusintha kwa Onse ndi Kusintha

Maboma amayang'aniranso akuluakulu a zoyendera za anthu onse . monga ngati MTA kapena California . Mabungwe ameneŵa amayang'anizana ndi mavuto aakulu: zoyendera zaukalamba, zopereŵera, ndi kusintha kwa apaulendo. Mliri wa Covid wowonongeka ndi wokwera ndege, wotsogolera ku boma la belo ndi njira zatsopano zonga kutsendereza (G. g., programu ya New York City yolinganizidwa). Maboma tsopano akuyesa ndi galimoto zoyendera, galimoto zamagetsi zokankhira, ndi njanji yapamwamba. Cali forfil Leat Ral Authority [1] Ndi chitsanzo cha boma la kukhumba chuma, ndi kuchedwa ndi kuchedwa ndi nkhondo. Zigamu za lamulo zimenezi zikusonyeza zochitika.

Chitetezo cha Malo Okhala

Lamulo la malo okhala ndi thayo logawiridwa ndi boma, koma kaŵirikaŵiri maboma amagwira ntchito monga malaboratori a demokrase mwa kukhazikitsa miyezo yokhwima. Nkhani ya Massachusetts v. EPA (2007), yotchulidwa poyamba, imapatsa maboma kukhala akuimira boma loyang'anira za nyengo. Koma maboma amachitanso zinthu zachindunji: amalamulira madzi abwino pansi pa Lamulo la Zamadzi, kuyang'anira zinyalala zowopsa, ndi kuteteza maiko ena. Maboma a California Flueat Act (B 32) AFLD] amaika zopatsirapo zachiwawa, kupanga chitsanzo cha mtundu. Mawu ena, mofanana ndi Washington, atsatira ndi malamulo awo.

Kukakamizidwa ndi Kuvala Mitundu

Boma limakhazikitsa malamulo a malo okhala kupyolera mwa mabungwe onga Texas Commission on Environmental Security kapena California Department of Pesticide Regation . Komabe, kusungitsa kungakhale kosagwirizana. Nkhani ya Gwaltney ya Smithfield v. Chesapeake Bay Foundation (1987)) inafotokoza kuti nzika zingasunge boma loipitsa malo chifukwa choswa lamulo la kuyeretsa madzi, ngakhale ngati bungwe la boma likana kuchitapo kanthu. Mbali imeneyi "yaloyake" imalengezabe mlandu. Kuyesayesa kotchuka ndi New York York Commissiontion’stion’s , kukana mlandu wa Recontroples, kutchula nkhani za malo ozungulira.

Kugwiritsira Ntchito Nkhalango ndi Zachilengedwe

Mayiko amalamulira madera a boma m'malire awo (kuchotsa dziko monga mapaki a dziko). Amalamuliranso dziko lachinsinsi kugwiritsa ntchito mwa kumanga ndi kuipitsa malo. Kutenga lamulo [1] pamene lamulo la boma liwononga chuma mobwerezabwereza. Mu Lucas v. South Carolina Coast Council Council] [1992], Khoti Lapamwamba linalamula kuti mwini munda ayenera kubwezeredwa pamene lamulo la boma limaletsa kugwiritsa ntchito chuma. Mlandulowu kuti ulinganize bwino chitetezo ndi ufulu wa malo okhalako. Mayiko ambiri avomereza mwa kupanga "mabanki otetezera kapena kupititsa patsogolo ufulu wa kukwaniritsa popanda chiletso.

Chilungamo Chaupandu ndi Chisungiko cha Anthu

Maboma amayang'anira dongosolo la chiweruzo cha milandu: amakhazikitsa zilango, madipatimenti apolisi, amayendetsa ndende, ndi kulamula. Nkhani ya Furman v. Georgia [772] adachotsa chilango cha imfa monga momwe anagwirizanitsira panthaŵiyo, kuipeza kukhala yodzisankhira ndi yopatula. Zimenezi zinatsogolera ku kukhazikitsa malo a boma ndipo kenako kukhazikitsa malamulo a dziko lonse lapansi, ndipo zakhala zikuthetsa chilango cha imfa, pamene malamulo ena okonzanso kuti agwirizane ndi malamulo alamulo. Gregb v. Georgia [6] [6] chigamu chovomerezedwa ndi njira yatsopano, yotsogozedwa, koma yapitiriza kutsutsana ndi kupha. Monga momwe malamulo ena 2025, akhalapo ndi zilango za kuphedwa kwa anthu ambiri opalamula mlandu wowa.

Kuthandiza Ena Kuti Azivutika ndi Chilango

Kutsutsana kwa filosofi pakati pa chilango ndi kubwezeretsa zinthu kumachitidwa m'malamulo a boma. Mayiko ena, mofanana ndi Texas, agwiritsa ntchito kwambiri ntchito "progress" pothandiza kuchepetsa kukonzanso kwa maukwati, monga Textas Reententry ndi Interiation Service . Ena, mofanana ndi California, achepetsa anthu a m'ndende mwa kukonzanso zinthu zophwanya malamulo monga Progrestion, zimene zinakonzanso milandu yopanda chiwawa kuchokera ku mafelo kuti aipenye. Nkhani ya Brown. Plata " (20) anakakamiza California kuchepetsa ndende yake yosatsalira, kuyendetsa chisamaliro chamaganizo choletsa cha matenda chomakemerachi. Nkhani imeneyi ikusonyeza kuti maboma a anthu sangaperekerenso mikhalidwe yosayenera kukhazikitsa malamulo ndi kuwonjezera kulipira chikhomezo, monga momwe amachitira malamulo owonjezera, ndi kupulumutsa chiŵeretso cha mankhwala chochepa, monga kupulumutsa chikhomaketso choteretsa, ndi kuchepetsa chikhole chotsa chikhole cho.

Kusintha kwa Apolisi ndi Chitetezo cha Anthu

Boma linakhazikitsanso miyezo ya kusungitsa malamulo, kugwiritsira ntchito mphamvu, ndi kuŵerengera mlandu. Kuphedwa kwa George Floyd mu 2020 kunayambitsa kusinthika kwa apolisi apamwamba, kuphatikizapo kuletsedwa kwa mabwinja, makamera a thupi, ndi kuchotsedwa kwa akuluakulu a bungwe. Mwachitsanzo, [[FLT] Minnesota , [[FLT] [1] [1] kupambana Accounting Activitial Act (Actsctsssssct, [[FLT]]] New York York [[FLT]]] [FLT]] "5], lamulo limene linatetezera apolisi olemba makalata. Komabe, liyenera kulinganiza ndi kusunga chitetezo, chipwiriti cha chiwawa chowonekera m'mizinda ina. [NT. Suptlective: Fromes]

Kupita Patsogolo kwa Zachuma Ndiponso Mautumiki Othandiza Anthu

Kupyola mbali zazikulu zapamwamba, akuti amachita mbali yaikulu m'kukula kwa chuma ndi ubwino wa anthu. Iwo amachirikiza inshuwalansi ya kusoŵa ntchito, kupereka chithandizo cha ndalama (TANF), ndi kuyang'anira misika ya antchito. Nkhani ya Dandridge v. Williams[[[FLT:] [1970]] [1970]) adachirikiza ntchito ya Maryland yopereka ndalama zothandizira anthu osoŵa ntchito, ngakhale kuti ndi ukulu wa banja, kukhazikitsa ufulu wa boma pothandiza. Posachedwapa, CHOVIID-19 inaona kuti kupikisana ndi mapindu owonjezereka a kusoŵa ntchito, kuthandizira ana, ndi kuchotsa makampani. Kukopanso mabizinesi kudzera m'malangizo ndi maphunziro a ntchito, kaŵirikaŵiri kutsutsana ndi chithandizo cha zachuma (yesok'za: .Wsinsin's'kuthandiza ndi kuyendetsa ntchito zankhondo yosawonjezedwa. [Magazine]

Chitetezo cha Antchito ndi Malamulo a Antchito

Maboma angatenge maprogramu awoawo a chisungiko cha ntchito ndi zaumoyo ngati akwaniritsa miyezo ya boma (Cal/OSA ndi chitsanzo chimodzi). Iwo amaikanso malipiro ochepa kuposa a boma .29 ndi D.C. pakali pano ali ndi malipiro ocheperapo. Nkhani ya Garcia v. San Antonio Metropolitan Transitan Authority [[FLL:1] [1985] Malamulo a boma a antchito, kutsimikizira kuti maboma ayenera kutsatira miyezo yaudindo yaukapolo wa boma. Komabe maboma amasunga mphamvu yopitirira malamulo a kumanja, malamulo a mgwirizano, ndi malamulo olipiridwa. Chikhoterero cha boma kulipirira kuchoka m'masiye a banja operekedwa m'magawo ngati New York, California, ndi Washington amasonyeza mmene malamulo a boma a boma akusonyeza m’malamulo a za kayendetsekedwe ka ntchito kayendere.

Kumaliza

Mathayo a maboma ngochuluka monga momwe amapitirizira. Kuyambira m'kalasi mpaka ku bwalo lamilandu, kuyambira kukonza mlatho mpaka kuletsa matenda, maboma ndiwo malo oyamba a ulamuliro wa Amereka ponena za moyo watsiku ndi tsiku. Nkhani zenizeni zofotokozedwa [1] Brown v. Board of Education , [[FLT] Massachussss. v. [FFLT: 3], [FFFFF:], [FFFFF:], [FFFFFF:], "[4] . . . Rodrigueaz [[FLT:] [zik] [zik'], [zifulizonse], [ziyenezonse] monga momwe zivunira ntchito zaunyirira ntchito zaunyi waudindo lakale, ndi kuyesayesa kwa anthu ena, kuwonjezera kwa kuyesayesa kwaudindo lakale, kuwonjezera kwa anthu onse.