Chipani cha Malamulo: Buku la Ufulu, United States, ndi Kubadwa kwa Kusankha

Malamulo a U.S. adapanga dongosolo la uchifumu la mbali ziŵiri, ndi maulamuliro ogawidwa pakati pa boma la dziko ndi maboma. Malamulo ameneŵa, boma, adalinganizidwira kusungitsa ufulu wa boma pamene akupatsa boma mphamvu zoŵerengedwa. Komabe, Bill of Rights . Khoti Lalikulu linakhulupirira kuti Bill of Rights sanaletse kachitidwe ka boma. Kwa zaka zana limodzi, linali ndi ufulu wokhazikitsa chitetezo chawo chaumwini, kuchititsa kusiyana kwakukulu m'dziko lonselo. Kusintha kumeneku kunayambitsa chivomerezo: Chivomezo chimene dziko linakhazikitsa pa ufulu wa boma logwirizana ndi ufuluwo?

Yankho linadza kupyolera mwa 144th Amendment , yovomerezedwa mu 1868. Malo Ovomerezeka ake kapena Immunites Claus , Act Process Claus , ndi Aume Development Claus adakonzedwa, mwapang'ono, kutsimikizira kuti maboma sanatsekereze ufulu wa akapolo ndi nzika zina. Komabe, Khoti Lapamwamba linamasulira Malo Oyenera kapena Amaunita Claus mwapang'ono kwambiri [FL: 0] Cases-Nyumba [1873] [183]), kuchotsa bwino mphamvu yake ya kugwiritsira ntchito ufulu wa ufulu ku maboma. Mmalo mwake, Khoti linatembenukira ku Gawo la Claus Claus monga galimoto yophatikizapo. Chiphunzitso chalamulo chimenechi chogwirizana ndi ufulu wa dziko la America posakhazikitsa ufulu wa dziko lonse la dzikolo logwirizana ndi ufulu wa kuletsa ufulu wa dziko la dziko la United States.

Kusankha kulowa m'boma sikuphatikizapo kugwiritsa ntchito kokha kwa Boma la Ufulu. M’malo mwake, ndi mlandu wa mutu mwa umene Khoti Lalikulu limasankha ngati kuyenera kwapadera kuli "kulingalira za njira yathu yolamulira" ndipo chifukwa chake kuyenera kugwira ntchito ku mayiko. Kusintha kumeneku pang’onopang’ono kumasonyeza kupanikizika kokhala pakati pa boma: kugwirizana kwa ufulu wadziko ndi ufulu wa boma poyerekezera ndi kuyesa ndi ufulu. Kumvetsa zimenezi kumafuna kulowa m’nkhani zazikulu, mfundo zalamulo zoyambira kumbuyo kwa ufulu, ndi mikangano yopitiriza yokhudza kulinganiza bwino ufulu pakati pa ulamuliro ndi ulamuliro.

Lamulo la 14 Lowonjezera: Mlatho Pakati pa Ufulu Wachibadwidwe ndi Kachitidwe ka Boma

Asanayambe kuphatikizana, Konsichushoni ina inafunikira njira yomangira maboma. Lamulo la 144 la Kusintha kwa Malamulo la Authority Authority Claus lanena kuti: "Ndipo Boma lililonse silidzalanda munthu aliyense moyo, ufulu, kapena katundu, popanda njira yoyenerera ya lamulo. Pamene kuli kwakuti mawuwo amatchula molunjika "zochitika zapanthaŵiyo," Bwalo laimasulira kuti iphatikizepo chitetezo chapansi pa zikole , ndiko kuti, ufulu wina uli wofunika kwambiri kwakuti palibe boma limene lingawachotse, mosasamala kanthu za njira yogwiritsiridwa ntchito. Chiphunzitso chimenechi "chigonjera pa njira yoyenerera" ndicho maziko a kusanthula.

Chigawo china . . . . . . . . Khoti linakana njira imeneyo mu Adamson v. California (1947]) ndipo mmalo mwake linapitiriza njira ya malamulo. Monga chotulukapo, ufulu wina waikidwa, pamene ena akhalabe osaphatikizidwa (monga ngati lamulo la Third Confectioned pa Jenerment pa Generalse, Reconsoletion yaikulu ya Couversement, ndi Reformation ya ku kuimula mlandu wa ajuli ya boma). Kulingalira kumeneku kungasonyeze kulolera koyenera kwa bungwe laboma: Khoti lachimo lolamulira malamulo a m'bomalo.

Milandu Yaikulu ya Khoti Lalikulu: Kufufuza Kwabwino kwa Mlanduwo

Nthaŵi yosankha yophatikiza ndi kuphatikiza ndi nkhani ya kusintha kwa zinthu, kochititsidwa ndi oweruza osintha kumvetsa mfundo zazikulu za chilungamo. Pansipa pali nkhani zosonyezera zinthu zimene zinagwiritsa ntchito ufulu wachindunji ku mayiko, limodzi ndi chaka cha kuphatikizapo ndi malamulo oloŵetsedwamo.

Kusintha Koyamba kwa Malamulo

  • Gitlow v. New York (1925) – Ufulu wa kulankhula ndi kusindikiza . Khoti linagwiritsira ntchito chigamulo chaulere cha kuyankhula kupyolera mu Lamulo la 145 la Procession Claus, ngakhale kuti linachirikiza chitsimikizo cha Gitlow pansi pa lamulo la chipanduko cha boma. Nkhaniyi inatsegula khomo kaamba ka kuphatikiza kwa mtsogolo zoyenera za Kusintha Koyamba.
  • Near v. Minnesota (1931) [1] – Ufulu wa nyuzipepala (kuletsa). Khoti linaphatikizapo chitetezo choletsa chisanaletsedwe, kuswa lamulo la boma limene linalola kutsenderezedwa kwa zofalitsidwa za "Thokoso".
  • Cantwell v. Connecticut (1940) [1] – chipembedzo chaufulu. Khoti linagwiritsira ntchito ufulu wa chipembedzo wa ufulu wa ufulu wa boma.
  • Everson v. Board of Education (1947) [1] – Kukhazikitsa Claus . Khoti linaphatikiza chiletso pa kukhazikitsidwa kwa chipembedzo, kuchirikiza programu ya boma imene inabwezera ndalama za ana a sukulu za parochiast pansi pa "pindulo" chiphunzitso.

Ufulu wa Apandu

  • Mapp v. Ohio (1961)[FL:1] – Lamulo lachinayi Lopatula Chilamulo. Khoti linagwiritsira ntchito lamulo lakuti umboni wopezeka mosemphana ndi lamulo sungagwiritsiridwe ntchito m’khoti la boma, kubwezera kufufuzidwa kwa upandu kwa boma mwamphamvu.
  • Gideon v. Wainwright (1963) [1] [1] Kuyenera kwa 6 Confection ku uphungu. Khoti linafuna kuti loya apereke kwa apandu oimbidwa mlandu amene sangathe kulipira imodzi, kufutukuka kwakukulu kwa mathayo otetezera.
  • Miranda v. Arizona (1966) [[FL:1] [1] - Mwayi wachisanu Wosintha zinthu wotsutsa kudzitsutsa. Khoti linafuna kuti maboma agwirizane ndi machenjezo a Miranda (mwaufulu akhale chete, woyenerera kwa loya) asanaimbidwe mlandu.
  • Duncan v. Louisiana (1968) [1] – Kuyenera kwa Chisanu ndi chimodzi kwa kuweruza milandu yaikulu ya ajuli. Khoti linaphatikiza kuyenera kumeneku, kutsimikizira oimbidwa mlandu waupandu wowopsa kukhoza ku juli.
  • Shashington v. Texas (1967) [1] [1] Kukakamiza kwa nambala 6 kuti apeze mboni. Khoti linagwiritsira ntchito ufuluwo kukakamiza umboni ndi kupereka chidziwitso.
  • Benton v. Maryland (11969) [1] [1] Mpatuko wachisanu umateteza ku ngozi zoŵirikiza. Khoti linalamulira kumbuyoku ndi kuphatikizapo kuyenera kumeneku, kuletsa maboma kuyesa munthu kaŵiri pa mlandu umodzimodziwo.

Ufulu Wina

  • Chacago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad Co. v. Chicago (1897) [1] [1] – Fiference itenga mawu a Chingelezi. Khoti linaphatikizapo malipiro a katundu wotengedwa ndi boma (ngakhale kuti zimenezi zinalipo zisanaloŵetsedwe m'dongosolo lamakono).
  • NAACP v. Alabama (58) [1] Ufulu wodziwitsa wogwirizana ndi boma . Khoti linavomereza kuyenera kwa kugwirizana ndi maboma monga lamulo lalikulu la ufulu m’maboma.
  • Schilb v. Kuebel (1971] [1] – chiletso cha Kuzengedwa kwa Malamulo cha 8 ku belo lopambanitsa (Ngakhale kuti Khoti linavomereza kuphatikizapo popanda kutsutsana kwenikweni).
  • McDonald v. Chicago (2010) [1] - Kuyenera kwachiŵiri kwa kuchotsa ndi kunyamula zida. M'chigamulo chotchuka, khoti linagwiritsira ntchito Lamulo Lachiŵiri ku boma ndi maboma a Chicago, kuletsa Chicago ndi chibamu.
  • Timbs v. Indiana (209) [1] – Kuposerapo kwa ndalama za mlingo wa 8h Amendment. Khoti linaphatikizapo chitetezo chimenechi, kuchepetsa machitachita a boma.

As of 2025, only a handful of provisions remain unincorporated: the Third Amendment (quartering soldiers), the Fifth Amendment's grand jury requirement, the Seventh Amendment's civil jury trial right, and the EighthLamulo la kuletsa faindi yopambanitsa (tsopano yophatikizidwa ndi [[FL:0] manda [ [1] [1] koma chiganizo cha belo lopambanitsa chimachitidwa).

Mmene Kusankha Kwake Kumakhalira kwa Federalism

Unansi pakati pa kuphatikizana ndi kugwirizanitsa zinthu ndi boma kungamvedwe mwa kusinthana kwakukulu kutatu:

1. Ufulu Wofunika Kwambiri wa Dziko Lonse

Asanaloŵetsedwe m'dziko, ufulu wa nzika unadalira pa boma limene inakhalamo. Mwachitsanzo, munthu amene anaimbidwa mlandu wa upandu ku Oregon angakhale ndi chitetezo chochepa kuposa wina ku New York. Kusankha kukhazikitsa muyezo wa dziko lonse. Monga momwe Justice Cardozo alembera mu . Connecticut [1] [1937] [1937], Procession Classie imaphatikiza ufulu wa "mphinit " wokhawokha m’chiyeso cha ufulu. Zimenezi zimatsimikizira kuti palibe boma limene lingagwe pansi panthaka ya chilungamo. Chotulukapo n’chimodzimodzi. . Mayiko amathandizabe kuteteza koposa ufulu wa dziko lonselo.

2. Kuchepetsa Mphamvu ya Apolisi a Boma

Mphamvu ya polisi ya boma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lamulo loletsa kutentha mbendera monga mtundu wa chitsutso cha ndale (] Talfas v. Johnson , 1989] .

3. Ulamuliro wa Makhoti a Malamulo a Boma ndi Malamulo

Kuphatikizapo kosankha kumawonjezera kwambiri mphamvu ya Khoti Lalikulu kupenda njira za upandu za boma, kukhazikitsa malamulo, ndi zochita za akuluakulu a boma. Pamene lamulo la boma liswa kuyenera kwalamulo, makhoti a boma angalichotse. Zimenezi zikupanga kupenda kolimba komwe sikunapezeke mu Republic yoyambirira. Otsutsa amanena kuti zimenezi zimachepetsa ulamuliro wa boma mwa kulola oweruza osasankhidwa kuchotsa malamulo a boma osankhidwa ndi boma. Ochirikiza amanena kuti Bill of Rights Rights ili yopanda tanthauzo ngati maboma angainyalanyaze, ndi kuti boma la 1448 Demendment linali lofuna kuchepetsa mphamvu ya boma.

Chitsutso: Kutsutsa Kudya Nyama ndi Kumvetsetsa Koyambirira

Otsutsa kuphatikizapo kosankha kaŵirikaŵiri amachirikiza kumvetsetsa koyambirira kwa Malamulo. Iwo amatsutsa kuti okonza malamulo a Boma la Ufulu wa Anthu anakana dala kugwiritsa ntchito lamulolo ku mayiko, amakhulupirira kuti malamulo a boma ndi malamulo a ufulu adzateteza nzika. Chilungamo cha Ninth ndi Tentith Reformation chimalimbikitsanso lingaliro la maulamuliro a boma osungidwa. Malinga ndi lingaliroli, Kukonzanso kwa 1448 sikunalinganizidwira kuchotsa makonzedwe ameneŵa koma kutsimikizira kukhala nzika yolingana kwa akapolo omasulidwa , osati kukhazikitsa Bill of Rights Rights pa maboma. Chilungamo, Thomas, m'pangano pakati pa [FL:]. Chivomezi. Chigan chikhoza kutetezera ufulu wambiri wa dzikolo, popanda kugamula kuvomereza kulakwa kwake.

Zovuta Zamakono ndi Mafunso Osathetsedwa

Kusankha kukuchititsa kuti pakhale nkhondo za boma.

Kusintha kwachiŵiri Pambuyo pa Kusintha kwa McDonald

Chiyambire McDonald v. Chicago (2010), maboma amangidwa ndi Second Amendment . Izi zachititsa mavuto aakulu a kukhazikitsa malamulo oletsa mfuti, kuyambira kuletsa zida zoukira (zokhala m’madera ena, kugwetsa m'madera ena) kunyamula ziletso. Chigamulo cha Khoti Lalikulu mu New York State Rifle & Pistol Association v. Bruen . [FLT:] 20222]

Makhoti a Apandu ndi Makhoti a Boma

Malamulo a upandu ophatikizapo adakalipobe . Map [[FLT :1] malamulo opatula afupidwa m'zochitika zonga Hering v. United States] (2009]), kugwiritsa ntchito kokha pamene apolisi anachita mwadala kapena mopanda nzeru pa ufulu. Momwemo, Gideon yoyenerera kupatsidwa uphungu ndi madongosolo osakwanira otetezera anthu m'mayiko ambiri. Kusankha kumachititsa pulogalamu, koma kaŵirikaŵiri kumayesayesa kuchirikiza kuvomereza. Kusintha kumeneku: Kusintha kwa bungwe: Kusintha kwa mayiko?

Kutaya Mimba ndi Njira Yofunika Kwambiri

Pamene kuli kwakuti kuphatikiza kwapadera kuli kwenikweni ponena za kugwiritsira ntchito Bill of Rights, Account Classia amodzimodziwo agwiritsiridwa ntchito kutetezera zoyenera zosatsutsidwa. Chofunika kwambiri ndicho kuyenera kwa kuchotsa mimba mu Roe v. Wade ndi [FLT:] [2] [B]] [Malamulo] [malamulo] otetezeredwa ndi [kapena kuti, [kapena kuti,]] (6]1992) [[FLT]] [2] [2] [Imodzi] [7] [ziyezo]. Komabe, m'ka [[FLT:] Dobbs v. Jackson's Organization of Health Health [FLD:] [202] [ignome , Coult] yosagwiritsidwa ntchito bwino kwambiri m'Genesitions . [5]

Luso la Zaluso ndi Malo Atsopano

Kusankha kumagwira ntchito pa nkhani zamakono. Mwachitsanzo, chitetezo cha Chisinthiko chachinayi choletsa kufunafuna kosalingalira chagwiritsiridwa ntchito ku makompyuta, monga mu Riley v. California (kufunikira kwa makompyuta a foni kuti agwire) ndi Kampulupulu ya . United States [[FLT]] (2088) (kufunikira chidziŵitso cha mbiri yakale cha maselo- a m'makompyuta). Nkhani zimenezi zimafalikira ku mabwalo atsopano a sayansi, kukakamiza lamulo la lamulo la kusinthira. Kuyamba kukhazikitsa malamulo auleredwe a ufulu wa kulankhula kwaufulu kwa mapulogalamu m'ma [FFFF:] [FLT] (12:] (208).

Kumaliza: Kupitirizidwa Kokhalitsa Pakati pa Ufulu wa Kuyenera kwa Munthu ndi Boma

Unansi pakati pa kuphatikizana ndi boma si kukhazikika koma kukambitsirana kosalekeza. Kwa zaka zoposa zana limodzi, Khoti Lapamwamba lagwiritsira ntchito pang’onopang’ono Bill of Rights kutetezera maboma, kutsimikizira ufulu wa munthu aliyense wa ku America, mosasamala kanthu za malo amene amakhala. Njira imeneyi yalimbikitsa ufulu wa munthu aliyense koma yalimbitsanso mphamvu ya boma mu judicaary, kuchepetsa malire a ufulu wa dziko la America.

Otsutsa amanena kuti kusankha maulamuliro kwafooketsa maboma monga malaboratori a demokrase mwa kukhazikitsa njira imodzi yokha yoyenerera ndi yokha. Ochirikiza amanena kuti ufulu wofunika sungakhale wosiyana ndi malowo . Otsutsa amanena kuti: Kodi ndi ufulu uti umene uli woyenerera ngati boma lingawasiye. Malingaliro onse aŵiri ali oyenerera, ndipo malemba a Malamulo amasiya malo omasulira. Pamene mavuto atsopano amabuka kuchokera ku luntha lopanga ndi lobisika m'chitaganya choyang'anira. Funsolo lidzabwera: Kodi ndi ufulu wofunika kwambiri umene boma lingawakane? Yankho lake lidzapitiriza kumasulira unansi pakati pa osankha ndi a bungwe la malamulo kuti mibadwo ibwere.

Kuŵerenga kowonjezereka pa mbiri ya kusankha, fufuzani [[FLT: 0] Project yosonyeza zochitika za m'dziko, ndi Cornell Legin Information Institute's jointtion's . Kuloŵa mozama kwambiri mu Dementi ya 1449, [[FLT:] ndi Malamulo a dziko a Chigawo cha Malamulo [ kumapatsa akatswiri ofufuza. Nkhani zophatikizapo zachisankho zina zimatengedwa mu [FLT:] Tomas:] M'D [FFLT]. . . . . .V.FT.

Pomalizira pake, kusankha kuphatikiza kumasonyeza kuti upanipani si njira yolimba koma njira yogwira mtima. Imalola mtunduwo kusinthika uku akulingalira maziko a ulamuliro wa mbali ziŵiri. Malinga ngati malamulo akhalapobe, makhoti adzapitirizabe kufunsa kuti ndi ufulu uti umene uli wofunika "kukhazikitsa ufulu" .