Chiphunzitso cha chosankha kuphatikizapo kwa boma ndi boma, koma mlandu ndi mlandu, kudzera pa pulogalamu yosintha kwambiri m'lamulo la America. Imapereka njira yalamulo imene zitetezero za Boma zimagwiritsidwa ntchito m'maboma ndi maboma akwawo, osati pa nthaŵi imodzi, koma pa mlandu, kugwiritsa ntchito Servet Proces Claus de Demendment. Pasanalowetsedwe ufulu wa anthu, Likulu la Ufulu wa kukhazikitsa boma lokha, limasiya maboma omasuka kwambiri ku malire a ufulu wa munthu aliyense. M'zaka za zana la makumi aŵiri, Bwalo Lapamwamba linatulutsa mpambo wa zigamulo zimene zinasonyeza pang’onopang’ono ufulu wofunika ku America aliyense, zimene zinakhalako. Kumvetsa bwino kwa ufulu umenewu n’kuyenerera ufulu wa boma lerolino.

Kukongola kwa Malo Opatulikitsa: Chifukwa Chake Msonkhano wa Ufulu Wachibadwidwe Sunagwire Ntchito ku Dziko

Kwa zaka 130 zoyambirira za dzikolo, Bill of Rights analingaliridwa kukhala chiletso cha boma la boma. Khoti Lapamwamba linapanga ichi kukhala chomvekera bwino mu Barron v. Baltimore (1833), pamene Woweruza Wamkulu John Marshall adati kukonzanso kwa khumi oyambirira “palibe mawu alionse osonyeza cholinga cha kuwagwiritsira ntchito ku maboma. Pambuyo pa Nkhondo ya Chiŵeniŵeni, Kusintha kwa 144 kunayamba kuvomerezedwa ndi chigamulo chimene chimaletsa kukana“ munthu aliyense wa moyo, ufulu, kapena katundu, popanda njira yoyenerera ya lamulo. Kukhoza kwa lamulo limeneli kunatha poyambirira ndi [FLD:2] Casesmes [3] [1]

Koma pofika kumayambiriro kwa zaka za m’ma 1900, khotili linakana kugwiritsa ntchito ufulu wa boma pofufuza mfundo zina za ufulu umene linkanena kuti ndi ufulu waukulu uti umene “unkagwirizana ndi ufulu wa boma. ”

Kupambana Koyamba: Ufulu wa Kulankhula ndi Chiyambi cha Kusankha

Gitlow v. New York (1925)

Posinthira pake panakhala ndi Gitlow v. New York . Benjamin Gitlow , wokonda social, adapezedwa ndi mlandu pansi pa lamulo laupandu la New York lolengeza kuperekedwa kwa kugwetsedwa kwa boma. Khoti Lapamwamba linachirikiza chitsimikizo chake pa zabwinozo. Kupeza kuti mawu ofunsidwawo anafunsa chiwopsezo chokwanira cholungamitsa chilango , koma pochita motero, chinalengeza lamulo la lamulo lamphamvu kwambiri kuposa chotulukapo cha mlanduwo. Kwanthaŵi yoyamba, Bwalo linalengeza kuti “ufulu wa kulankhula ndi wa manyuzipepala . Ilo latetezedwa ndi malamulo Oyamba kuchokera ku malamulo otetezera ufulu wa munthu ndi ‘ ufulu waumwini ndi ufulu wa kumbuyo kwa malamulowo.

Ngakhale kuti Gitlow analephera, chigamulocho chinatsegulira otsutsa amtsogolowo njira yotsutsa malamulo a boma amene anaswa ufulu wa kuperekedwa kwa ufulu wa Oyamba Owonjezera. Chidacho chinali chiyambi cha kuphatikiza ndi kuphatikiza zinthu zina mwa kusankha kumene kukanachitika m’zaka makumi angapo zotsatira.

Kuyesa Koyambirira: Palko ndi Kufunafuna “Ufulu Woikidwa”

Palko ndi Connecticut (1937)

Mu Palko v. Connecticut . Connecticut , khoti linayang'anizana ndi ngati chitetezo cha Fite Amendment cha kuopsa koŵirikiza chinagwiritsidwa ntchito m'mayiko. Kulemba kwa ambiri, Jasitiza Benjamin Cardozo anakana lingaliro lakuti Bill of Rights iyenera kuikidwa m'magulu. M’malo mwake, iye anayambitsa “kuyesa kwachikhalidwe chapamwamba”: kokha ufulu umene uli“ umakhazikika m’chiphunzitso cha ufulu” ndi “chozika m’malemba a anthu athu monga ngati kuti ndi maziko ofunikira. Pambuyo pake, Khoti limene linali ndi lopanda kuopsa koyenera kuphatikiza malamulo [a: Flution] [2] [2]

Woweruza Hugo Black, m’kutsutsa kotchuka, anatsutsa kaamba ka “chiwonkhetso chophatikizidwa” [1] lingaliro lakuti Accepment of 14th Rescription’s Access Claus linalinganizidwira kugwiritsira ntchito Bill of Rights ku maboma. Malo a Black sanalamulire unyinji wa anthu, koma kutsutsa kwake kwamphamvu kunathandizira kusonkhezera Bwalo lamilandu kulinga ku ku kumvetsetsa kwakukulu kumene zoyenera zinali zofunika.

Zosankha Zofunika Kwambiri Zimene Zinalimbikitsa Chiphunzitso cha Mapeto

Pafupi ndi Minnesota (1931) – Ufulu wa Press

Zaka zisanu ndi chimodzi Gitlow atatha, Khoti linaphatikiza mawu a First Amendment mu Near v. Minnesota . Mlanduwo unaphwanya lamulo la boma lomwe linalola kuti “zanji, zonyansa, ndi zoipitsa za nyuzi". Khoti linanena kuti ufulu wa ofalitsa nkhani asanaletsedwe unali ufulu wofunika kwambiri wotetezedwa ndi bungwe la Gwero la Claus. Chigamulochi chinapereka malire awo oyamba omveka bwino oletsa kusanthula.

DeJonge . Oregon (1937) – Ufulu wa Msonkhano

Mu Denjonge v. Oregon, Bwalo lamilandu linaphatikiza kuyenera kwa First Amendment kusonkhana mwamtendere. Mlanduwo unaloŵetsamo msonkhano wa Chipani cha Komyunizimu umene unaswedwa ndi akuluakulu a Oregon. Khotilo linagamula mogwirizana kuti ufulu wa msonkhano ndi ufulu wofunika kwambiri, ndipo mabomawo sakanatha kuphwanya lamulo la kupezeka pa msonkhano wandale wamtendere.

Cantwell . Connecticut (1940) – Kulimbitsa Thupi Mwaufulu kwa Chipembedzo

Cantwell v. Connecticut inaphatikiza mawu a kugwiritsa ntchito kwaulere kwa First Amendment. Mlanduwo unaloŵetsamo Mboni za Yehova zimene zinamangidwa kaamba ka zopereka popanda laisensi ndi kujambula nyimbo zimene zinatsutsa Tchalitchi cha Katolika. Khotilo linanena kuti Claus wa kuyenera kwa kukhulupirira ndi kutsatira chipembedzo cha munthu, kumangoikidwa ziletso zochepera kaamba ka chitetezo ndi dongosolo la onse.

Everson v. Board of Education (1947) – Kukhazikitsa Claus

Chigamulo chokhazikitsa chinaphatikizidwa mu Everson v. Board of Education . M'chigamulo 5 764, Khoti la New Jersey linasunga lamulo limene linabwezera makolo ndalama za mabasi ku sukulu za parochi, komanso linagwiritsiranso ntchito mawu okhazikitsa ku maboma kwa nthaŵi yoyamba. Lingaliro la Jaji Black linalengeza motchuka kuti “Malamulo Oyamba amanga khoma pakati pa tchalitchi ndi boma ". ndi kuti “khomalo liyenera kusungidwa ndi kuthamangitsidwa. Everson adakali chitsanzo cha maziko a tchalitchi pa nkhani za chigawa cha boma.

Map v. Ohio (1961) – Cachinayi Commergate ndi Ulamuliro wa Exclussion

Mwinamwake chimodzi cha zigamulo zowonjezera kwambiri chinali Mapp v. Ohio . . Nyumba ya Dollree Map inafufuzidwa ndi apolisi popanda chilolezo, ndipo anaimbidwa mlandu wa kukhala ndi zinthu zonyansa. Khoti Lapamwamba linasintha chitsimikizo ndi kukhazikitsa lamulo lakuti kutetezera kwa KanemPremp Repution ku kusanthula kosamveka ndi kudwala, pamodzi ndi lamulo lotsegulidwa (limene kuli kugwiritsiridwa ntchito kwa umboni wopezeka mosemphana ndi lamulo), limagwira ntchito ku makhoti a boma. Pasadakhala Map, akunena kuti lingagwiritsire ntchito umboni ngakhale ngati unapezeka mosemphana ndi lamulo. Pambuyo pa Mapup, lamulo lapamwamba linakhala muyezo wa dziko lonse la lamulo.

Gideon ndi Wainwright (1963) – Kuyenera kwa Uphungu

Gideon v. Wainwright adakhulupirira kuti chitsimikiziro cha Sixth Amendment cha kuimbidwa mlandu waupandu chimagwira ntchito ku milandu ya boma. Clarence Earl Gideon, woimbidwa mlandu wosauka ku Florida, adakanidwa loya wa khoti loikidwa. Khotilo linagamula kuti ufulu wa kupereka uphungu ndi “wofunika kwambiri ndi wofunika ku mlandu wachilungamo .

Miranda . Arizona (1966) – Self .ncringation

Mwayi wa Kusintha kwa Malamulo Wachisanu unaphatikizidwa pa [[FL:0] Miranda v. Arizona , yomwe inaphatikizanso ufulu wa Asanu ndi chimodzi wa kupereka uphungu pofunsidwa apolisi. Khoti linafuna lamulo loletsa kukayikira ufulu wawo. Tsopano . . . . . . . . . Chinkana kuti lamulo la boma, linagwiritsidwa ntchito ku boma pofufuza mayeso a apolisi ndipo linakhalabe chinsinsi cha malamulo aupandu.

Kupitiriza Ntchitoyi: Kusintha Malamulo Owonjezera

Duncan . Louisiana (1968) – Kuyenera Kuzengedwa Mlandu wa Jury

Chikalata cha Sixte Amendment cha ufulu wa kuweruza milandu ya ajuli chinaikidwa m'nkhani zaupandu ku . Louisiana . Khotilo linagamula kuti ufulu wa oweruza milandu yoopsa ndi wofunika kwambiri ndiponso wokakamiza maboma. Chigamulochi chinayambitsa kusintha kwakukulu: malamulo amene poyamba anayesapo milandu yaing’ono popanda majaji.

M’Gault (1967) – Njira Yoyenerera Juveniles

Ngakhale kuti si nkhani yovomerezeka yokha m’lingaliro lamwambo, Mu Gault [1] Malamulo ambiri a Claus adagwiritsira ntchito chitetezo cha Accole Celsius [1] kuphatikizapo kuyenera kwa uphungu, kuyenera kwa kudzitsutsa wekha, ndi kuyenera kwa kuyang'anizana ndi mboni , kutchula kupulupudza kwa achichepere. Inasonyeza kuti chiphunzitso chophatikizapo chinafalikira kuposa dongosolo laupandu lauchikulire.

Mzinda wa Chicago (2010) – Mpambo wachiŵiri wa Amereka

Kwa zaka zambiri, Lamulo Lachiŵiri silinagwiritsiridwe ntchito ku maboma. Khoti linasintha kuti mu McDonald v. Mzinda wa Chicago , umene unaphatikizapo ufulu wachiŵiri wa kukhazikitsa ndi kunyamula zida zankhondo za kudzisunga. Lingaliro la anthu ambiri linadalira pa Cetchire Claus, kugwiritsa ntchito kuti kumanja kunali “kulingalira kwathu kwa ufulu walamulo” ndi“ kukhazikika kwambiri m'mbiri ndi mwambo wa dziko lino. McDonald anatsimikizira kuti lamulo la boma ndi lakumeneko liyenera kudalira mfundo ya [FLD:2] pa . Hellp [FLD] v.

Chiyambukiro cha Kusankha: Kufanana ndi Kuchirikiza Ufulu

Kusankha kuyambitsa kusintha kodabwitsa kwa ulamuliro wa America. Chiphunzitsochi chisanagwire, ufulu wa nzika ukhoza kusiyana kwambiri kuchokera ku boma lina kupita ku lina. Lerolino, unyinji wa zitetezero za ufulu wachibadwidwe zimasungidwa ku boma ndi boma lakumaloko. Chotulukapo ndicho ufulu wofanana wa lamulo m'dziko lonselo, pamene kuli kwakuti maboma amakhalabe omasuka kupereka chitetezo chowonjezereka ngati asankha.

Chiphunzitsocho chimalinganizanso kuletsa ndi kusintha kwa kayendetsedwe ka zinthu. Mwa kuika zoyenera pamlandu [“m’mayeso, ” NW], khoti lingafufuze ufulu uliwonse m'nkhani yake ya mbiri ndi yothandiza. Njira yonse yochirikizidwa ndi Woweruza Black ikanakhala yosavuta, koma Bwalo lamilandu lasankha kupita patsogolo kwapang'onopang’ono, kolingaliridwa kumene kumaphatikizapo.

Mfundo zambiri zothandiza zachokera pa zosankha zimenezi:

  • Zoyenera za m'malingaliro ndizo “zimene zimadziŵika m'lingaliro la ufulu wolamulidwa" ndipo zimagwiritsiridwa ntchito ku maboma kupyolera mu Claus Procession.
  • Sikuti ufulu wonse m'Chikalata cha ufulu wa anthu waikidwa. Mwachitsanzo, Gawo lachitatu (kuika asilikali) ndi lamulo lachisanu la juli yogamula milandu silinagwiritsiridwe ntchito ku maboma.
  • Kusintha kuli kosankha , osati kotheratu. Kuyenera kulikonse kuyenera kuphimbidwa pa kamodzi kamodzi kasanamange maboma.
  • Ukulu wa kuyenera pamene iikidwa ku maboma ungakhale wofanana ndi pamene ikugwira ntchito ku boma la boma, koma Bwalo nthaŵi zina limasintha muyezowo kuti lisamalire zikondwerero za boma.

Kwa ophunzira ndi akatswiri a malamulo, nkhani zophatikizapo milandu imapereka kufufuza kochuluka kwa mmene Khoti Lalikulu lachitira kuti likhale ndi ufulu wofanana ndi wa boma.

Mavuto ndi Tsogolo la Kusankha

Pamene kuli kwakuti kuphatikiza kwapadera kwakhala kokhazikitsidwa bwino tsopano, mafunso akutsala. Khoti silinavomerezepo bwino lomwe kaamba ka chimene chimapanga “chikhalidwe,” ndi osuliza amatsutsa kuti muyezowo ungagwiritsiridwe ntchito kufikira zotulukapo zokhumbika. Kukwera kwa “malamulo kapena katemera ” mu Saenz v. Roe[FLT :1] [1999] ndi malingaliro okhalapo mu McD kuperekera kuti zoweruza zina zingakhale zofunitsitsa kupenda kaya dongosolo la Claus ndilo loyenera kuphatikizapo., kuphatikizapo luso la zopanga ndi la anthu, monga ngati lino lino, ndi la makompyuta, monga ngati kuti khoti la chiwongo (mafuna chitetezero chamakono) kuti chitetezero cha chiwone chiwopsezo (chi).

Mu 2022, Dobbs v. Jackson’s Health Organization Akazi anagwedeza [[FLT:] Roe v. Wade ndi [[FLT]] [[FLT]] Platearel v. Casey , pokhulupirira kuti kuyenera kuchotsa mimba sikunayambike kwambiri m'mbiri ya dziko ndipo motero si ufulu wotetezedwa ndi Clausse. Chigamulocho chimagogomezera kuti kuphatikizana sikuli kumodzi kwa pa nsonga yapasanja; Bwalo lingasiye kuzindikira chinthu chofunika kwambiri ngati chinatetezeredwa kale. Zimenezi zakhala zikutsutsana ndi ufulu wina wofanana ndi kupendanso mbiri yakale.

Komabe, chiphunzitso chachikulu cha kuphatikizana kosankha chidakali chogwirizana kwambiri ndi malamulo a boma la America. Zigamulo zapadera zofotokozedwa pamwambapa zikupitirizabe kukhala maziko a lamulo lovomerezeka. Amatsimikizira kuti chitetezo chimene chinasungidwa kale ndi awo ochita ndi boma la boma tsopano chikuteteza nzika iliyonse ku kuchenjeredwa ndi boma ndi akuluakulu a boma lakwawo.

Kuŵerenga Kowonjezereka ndi Ziŵiya

Kwa awo amene akufuna kufufuza nkhani zimenezi mozama, zinthu zotsatirazi zimapereka mapendedwe abwino kwambiri:

Nkhani ya kusankha ndi nkhani ya kuwonjezera pang'onopang’ono koma kosasintha kwa ufulu wa lamulo. Chosankha chilichonse . Chingakhale chikugwirizana ndi kuyenera kwa uphungu, lamulo lopatula, kapena kuyenera kwa kunyamula zida . Chitsimikiziro cha Bill of Rights sichili cha Washington, D.C.