Chiyambi: Thanthwe la Chilungamo

Lamulo lachitetezero cholingana pansi pa lamulo ndilo maziko a chilungamo m'mabungwe a democracy. Ilo limalamula kuti maboma achitire anthu mofanana, popanda tsankho lodzifunira lozikidwa pa fuko, mwamuna kapena mkazi, chipembedzo, mtundu, kapena mikhalidwe ina yosasinthika. Kwa ophunzira a mbiri yakale ndi malamulo, kuzindikira lamulo limeneli nkofunika kwambiri kuti amvetsetse mmene malamulo asinthira kuti athetse kupondereza ndi kupanga ufulu wachibadwidwe wamakono. Nkhaniyi imapereka kufupikitsa bwino lomwe likhoza kutetezera anthu amakono. Nkhaniyi imapereka mbiri yakale, milandu yotchuka ya khoti lapamwamba, mayeso amakono, malamulo alamulo ogwiritsira ntchito kupenda mfundo zimene zilipo.

Maziko a Chitetezo Chofanana ndi Mbiri

Lingaliro lakuti anthu onse amafunikira kulangidwa mofanana lamulo lisanachokere ku Malamulo a U.S. Maziko ake a luntha amabwerera ku mafilosofi akale, ziphunzitso za chipembedzo, ndi zikalata zoyambirira zalamulo. Magna Carta (1215) adatsimikizira kuti palibe munthu waufulu amene angalangidwe kusiyapo ndi lamulo la dziko, kutsogolera ku ntchito yoyenerera. Chikalata chachingelezi cha ufulu wa mfumu (1689) chinachepetsanso mphamvu yake, koma sichinapange lamulo lachikhalidwe lachisawawa. Akatswiri odziŵa zinthu onga John Locke anatsutsa kuti anthu onse ali ndi ufulu wachibadwire, kuphatikizapo ufulu, ndi katundu, ndi kuti boma liyenera kutetezera ufulu umenewu mosakondera.

Ku America, Chilengezo cha Kudziimira paokha chinalengeza kuti “amuna onse analengedwa ofanana, [1] chikhalire lonjezo limeneli linatsutsidwa ndi kukhazikitsidwa kwa ukapolo ndi kugonjera kwa lamulo kwa akazi. Malamulo oyambirira anaŵerengera anthu akapolo kukhala magawo atatu a munthu kaamba ka zifuno za kuimira ndi kutetezera mwachindunji malonda a akapolo. Unyinji unakhalabe wokhumbiridwa mmalo mwa lamulo lalamulo kufikira pambuyo pa Nkhondo ya Chiŵeniŵeni.

M’chikalata cha 14 cha Mpumulo ndi Kukonzanso

Chikalata chokonzanso (Communist Amendments (kapena kuti 13th, 14 ndi 15) chinaperekedwa kuti chithetse ukapolo ndi kukhazikitsa maziko a kufanana kwa mafuko. Mpando wa 149, womwe unavomerezedwa mu 1868, uli ndi ezakuti chinjirizo la mlingo wofanana ndi la Claus: “Palibe Boma limene lidzakana munthu aliyense amene ali ndi ulamuliro wofanana ndi malamulo." Mawuwa anali kuvomereza mwachindunji ku malamulo a Black Malamulo . Malamulo amene analetsa ufulu wa anthu akale ogwidwa ukapolo ndipo anakana ufulu wawo waukulu.

Okonza mapulogalamu a kukonzanso analinganiza kuti agwiritsidwe ntchito makamaka kwa Aafirika, koma lembalo limagwiritsira ntchito mawu aakulu akuti “munthu aliyense,” kuyala maziko a kufutukuka kwa mtsogolo. Mkati mwa kukonzanso, Congress adapanganso Freedmen’s Bureaup ndi kukhazikitsa zoyenera za nzika kuti zipereketse chitetezo chofanana. Komabe, kumasulira kochepetsetsa kwa Khoti Lapamwamba mu [FLT: 0] [Nyumba]] [Nyumba] [Makapena (1873] [[FL:1] ndi ufulu wa kutetezera [FLT:] Malamulo (183) [FLT] kuchepetsa kufikitsa kwa lamulolo, kulola kuti kusiyanitsa kwa utundu kukhaleko kwa nthaŵi yaitali monga ngati kukwera kwa mafuko. Kukwera kwa malamulo kwa pakati pa zaka za zana la 1877]

Mafotokozedwe a Khoti Lalikulu Koposa

Kuyambira ndi Kugwa kwa “Kudziyerekezera Koma Kofanana ndi”

Chigamulo cha Khotilo mu [FLT] Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)[FLT :2] anachirikiza kusankhidwa kwa mtundu wa boma pansi pa chiphunzitso cha “wosiyana koma wolingana.] Homer Pleby, munthu wa fuko losiyana, anatsutsa lamulo la Louisiana lofuna kuti sitima zikhale zoyenda. Khotilo linalamula kuti lisamatsutse Chitetezo cha Claus ngati zinthu zinakhala zofanana. Chigamulo chimenechi chinatsimikizira dongosolo la tsankho la fuko limene linapitirizabe kwa zaka zoposa makumi asanu.

Khotilo linasintha njira mu Brown v. Board of Education (1954)[FLT [1] , imene inalengeza kuti malo ophunzirira ndi “osalongosoka. [1] Mfumu Earl Warren analemba kuti kuchotsa kuchepetsako kumene kumayambitsa “chisonkhezero cha mwana cha kuphunzira. Brown adagwedeza Plev Pless m'nkhani ya maphunziro a anthu onse ndipo anakhala maziko alamulo a ufulu wa chivomezi. Pambuyo pake zigamu zina zina zina zolingalira za anthu, pomalizira pake zinachotsapo de jubre.

Kulingana Kowonjezereka: Kugonana, Kugonana, ndi Kuposapo

Ngakhale kuti Kutetezera Claus kofananako kunali koyambirira, Khoti lapereka chitetezo chake ku magulu ena. [FLT] .Reed v. Reed (1971][FLT :2], Bwalo linakantha lamulo la Idaho limene linkapatsa amuna ulemu pa akazi monga oyang'anira malo, kusonyeza nthaŵi yoyamba ya kunyada kwa mwamuna kapena mkazi inachotsedwa pansi pa Chitetezo cha Claus. [FLT:] V.CRAG.[FLT][FL:6] [FLT:] [FL:] [2]

Posachedwapa, [FLT .1] Obergefell v. Hodges ((] adakhulupirira kuti okwatirana a extern ali ndi ufulu wofanana walamulo kukwatira, kupeza kuti malamulo oletsa ukwati wofanana amaswa zonse ziŵiri maseŵero a Secondal ndi Chitetezo cha Claus. Khotilo linalingalira kuti ukwati ndi ufulu waukulu ndi kuti kuchotsa okwatirana auchiŵalo chimodzi kumalepheretsa ulemu wofanana. ] County . Clahton (20).[FLT:] [FLT:]

Kachitidwe Kotsimikiza ndi Atsogoleri Aufuko

Maprogramu otsimikiza olinganizidwa kuthetseratu tsankho lapita ayambitsa mkangano waukulu. Machemo a University of California v. Bakke (1978], Khoti linachotsa zigamulo za mafuko koma linalola kuti mtundu ukhale chinthu chimodzi chofunikira kulowa. [FLT:] Njira za mtundu. [Bollinger (2003) inachirikiza yunivesite ya Sukulu ya malamulo ya Michigan Law, kuwona kuti kusiyana kwa ophunzira kuli mkhalidwe wosonkhezera. Komabe, [FLT:] nthunsinsi ya mtundu wa Actives. Harvard / [2002] [FLT] [FLT] [FFFF: FUT] [F] pa , kuvomereza kuti Actrignometions projectives , Revolution.

Mapulogalamu a Masiku Ano ndi Nkhani Zotsutsana

Chitetezero chofanana chidakali nkhani yaikulu m'mbali zambiri za moyo wa Amereka. M'malo ovota, Shelby County v. Hoker (2013) chigamulo chofanana chinagonjetsa makonzedwe aakulu a Couting Rights Act, kuchititsa malamulo ambiri a boma amene amakhudza kwambiri osankhidwa ndi ochepa. Ziyeso za bungwe loteteza Claus Claus zabweretsedwa motsutsana ndi ziyeneretso za voti, gerrymermaning, ndi felony renfrancement .

M'chiweruzo chaupandu, kusiyana kwa mafuko m'ntchito zapolisi, kuweruza, ndi kumangidwa kwachititsa kunena kuti dongosolo limakana chitetezo chofanana. Nkhondo ya pa Mankhwala ndi zigamulo zochepera zofunikira zakhala ndi chiyambukiro chosayerekezereka pa anthu a Black ndi Aspanya. Kugwiritsira ntchito mphamvu, makamaka kwa anthu akuda opanda zida, kwasonkhezera kusintha ndi kuswa malamulo kutsendereza kutetezera kofanana.

Kuphunzitsa ndi kuchuluka kwa malingana. Nkhani zokhudza ndalama zoyendetsera sukulu, kupatsidwa kwa ndalama, ndi malamulo a mwambo kaŵirikaŵiri zimafuna chitetezo chofanana. Mofananamo, kugwiritsa ntchito njira zaumoyo mobwerezabwereza kwa anthu odutsa m’mayiko ena, anthu oyembekezera, ndi awo amene ali ndi zilema zikuwonjezereka. Act yothandiza anthu ovutika kuchepetsa ufulu wa akazi ndi yosagwirizana ndi njira zamakono zothandizira zamakono za Medicaid kukwaniritsa ntchito yachikazi yotetezera moyo.

Miyezo ya Kubwereramo: Mmene Khoti Limatetezera Anthu Ofanana

Kumvetsetsa mizera imeneyi n’kofunika kwambiri kwa wophunzira aliyense wophunzira za chitetezo chofanana.

  • Scrutiny : Kugwiritsiridwa ntchito kugaŵira zozikidwa pa fuko, chiyambi cha dziko, kapena kusamukira, ndi malamulo amene amalemetsa zoyenera zazikulu (kutumiza, ukwati, kuyenda kwa m'dziko). Boma liyenera kusonyeza chikondwerero chachikulu ndi kuti lamulo nlolinganizidwiratu kukwaniritsa. Malamulo ambiri amalephera kufufuza kosamalitsa.
  • [[FLT: 0] Scrutiny : Igwiritsiridwa ntchito kaamba ka masankho a kugonana ndi amuna. Boma liyenera kusonyeza cholinga chofunika ndi kuti lamulo nlogwirizana kwambiri ndi cholinga chimenecho. Muyezo umenewu umapatsa makhoti ufulu wowonjezereka wakuswa malamulo amene amachirikiza kuganiziridwa.
  • Rasal Basis Review [FLT: 1] : Muyezo wokhazikitsidwa wa malamulo ambiri a zachuma ndi a chikhalidwe cha anthu. Lamulo liyenera kukhala logwirizana bwino ndi chiwonjezeko cha boma. Malamulo onse amayesanso kupenda moyenerera, ngakhale kuti nkhani zina zonga Rompmer v. Evans (1996) [FL:3] yagwiritsira ntchito matembenuzidwe okhwima kwambiri ku malamulo ogwirira ntchito gulu lina.

Kusintha kuchoka pa maziko omveka kufika pa kupenda kwapakati kapena kosamalitsa kumasonyeza kuzindikira kwa Khotilo kuti magulu ena m’mbiri akhala akuchitiridwa tsankhu ndi kusoŵa mphamvu za ndale zadziko.

Malingaliro a Padziko Lonse pa Chitetezo Chofanana

Mayiko ambiri amaphatikiza mfundo zofanana ndi zimenezi m’malamulo awo ndiponso m’zipangizo zomenyera ufulu wa anthu.

  • Canada . Chigawo 15 cha Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms (19982) chimatsimikizira ulingana pamaso ndi pansi pa lamulo, ndi kuyenera kwa kutetezera kofanana ndi phindu popanda kusankhidwa chifukwa cha fuko, mtundu, mtundu, chipembedzo, kugonana, msinkhu, kapena kupunduka kwa maganizo. Makhoti a Canada amasulira mawu ameneŵa kuphatikizapo chitetezo kwa okwatirana auchiŵanda ndi anthu opunduka.
  • Kummwera kwa Africa [1]: Malamulo a pambuyo pa kutsata a mu 1996 amaphatikizapo mawu amphamvu olingana (Chiyeso 9) amene amaletsa tsankho losalungama pa zifukwa zambiri, kuphatikizapo fuko, kugonana, mimba, malo a muukwati, maganizo a kugonana, ndi kulemala. Imalolanso kuvomereza mchitidwe. Khoti la Malamulo lapereka malamulo apadera pa nyumba, zaumoyo, ndi kulingana kwa ukwati.
  • [[FLT: 0] Msonkhano wa ku Ulaya wa Ukratiki pa Ufulu Waumunthu [: Mfundo 14 imaletsa kukondera ufulu wotetezeredwa ndi pangano. Khoti la European Court of Human Rights lathetsa nkhani zonga kukondera Aroma, LGBTQ, ndi kagulu kachipembedzo.

Zitsanzo zapadziko lonse zimenezi zikusonyeza kuti ngakhale kuti chinenero chenicheni chimasiyana, kufunitsitsa kuchitiridwa mofanana ndiko mwambo wa demokrase ya dziko lonse.

Zitokoso ndi Kusuliza

Ngakhale kuti malamulo a boma akhazikitsa malamulo, kutetezedwa mofanana kuli ndi mavuto aakulu. Kusankhana mitundu ndiponso tsankho lachisawawa zikufalikira m’mabungwe, monga kugwirira ntchito, kulowa m’nyumba, kulembedwa ntchito. Ukapolo ndi kugaŵana zidakalipobe m’malo a chuma, m’maudindo, ndi m’makhalidwe osiyana. Ngakhale pamene malamulo satenga mbali pazinthu zapamaso, kusungitsa ndi kusonkhezera kukhoza kukhala kopanda tsankho.

Kugaŵikana kwa ndale zadziko kumabweretsanso vuto lina. Zaka makumi angapo aposachedwapa aona kutsutsana ndi kupita patsogolo kwa ufulu wa anthu, ndi maboma ena akukhazikitsa malamulo amene amaletsa kuvota, kuchepetsa ufulu wa anthu, ndi kuletsa mfundo za fuko yotsutsa m'masukulu. Njira zimenezi kaŵirikaŵiri zimayang'anizana ndi zitokoso za lamulo, koma zotulukapo zake sizikudziŵika bwino m'malamulo osintha. Kuikidwa kwa oweruza amene amavomereza mafotokozedwe oyambirira a Malamulo kungachititse kuchepetsa ufulu wa Extermilt Protection Claine, monga momwe kuwonekera mu [[FL: 0] machenjera a Fair Adgistrationss [[FLT1].

Osuliza amanenanso kuti kusanthula kosamalitsa nkwamphamvu ndi kuti makhoti nthaŵi zina amalephera kulongosola mitundu ya tsankho yobisika. Mwachitsanzo, Khotilo silinagwiritsirebe ntchito mosamalitsa kusanthula malamulo amene modabwitsa amavulaza anthu a mitundu ing'onoang'ono koma saali afuko lachindunji (m., malamulo operekera mankhwala osokoneza bongo). Kuitana kaamba ka njira yowonjezereka ya kachitidwe, yonga ngati [[FLT: 0]] kugonjera kwa [[FLT:] ] pulinsipulo, kugogomezera kuti kulingana kumafuna kusiyanitsa kwa mafuko, osati kungochitira anthu ena mofanana.

Kuphunzira Mozama Kwambiri

Anthu amene akufuna kupitiriza kupeza chitetezo chofanana, ali ndi zinthu zosiyanasiyana.

Mapeto ake: Ntchito Yopitirizabe

Kutetezeredwa kofanana pansi pa lamulo sikuli njira yalamulo yokha koma lonjezo logwirizana. Kuyambira pa Kukonzanso Malamulo mpaka pa Kupambana kwa Zifuno za Anthu m’zaka za zana la 20, ndi kulimbana kwa amuna ndi akazi ndi LGBTQ + kufanana kwa nkhani zazikulu za ufulu wa kuvota ndi kukonzanso chilungamo, lamulo lamakhalidwe lidakali chida champhamvu chopititsa patsogolo chilungamo. Panthaŵi imodzimodziyo, kutsutsana ndi kulinganiza kumeneku kumatikumbutsa kuti kulingana kumafunikiritsa kukhala maso kosalekeza, maphunziro, ndi kuloŵerera. Kwa ophunzira ndi aphunzitsi, kutenga mbiri yolemera ndi kuchuluka kwa chitetezero chamakono kuli kukonzekera kofunika kaamba ka kukhala nzika yodziŵitsidwa. Mawu osavuta a lamulo. “Boma... sadzakana chitetezo cha munthu aliyense... chofanana ndi malamulowo. [5]