Kutsatira malamulo ndi mfundo yofunika kwambiri m'malamulo amene amatsimikizira kuti munthu adzachitiridwa zinthu mwachilungamo kudzera m'malamulo. Ndi udindo wofunika kwambiri woteteza ufulu wa munthu aliyense pa zochita za boma. Kumvetsa ntchito yofunika kwa aphunzitsi ndi ophunzira, makamaka pokambirana kufunika kwa ziyeso zopanda chilungamo. Mfundo imeneyi imatsimikizira kuti palibe munthu amene adzalandidwa moyo, ufulu, kapena chuma popanda malamulo oyenera, ndipo imagwira ntchito yofufuza mphamvu za boma. Ku United States, njira yoyenerera imagwiritsidwa ntchito m'malamulo a ku chisanu ndi 14, koma mizu yake imayambira kumbuyo kwa malamulo a Chingelezi. Nkhani imeneyi inakulanso n’kufufuza mafotokozedwe, kusinthika kwa mbiri yakale, kufunsira kopindulitsa, ndi kukhazikitsa chuma cha aliyense amene akufuna kumvetsetsa mfundo imeneyi.

Kodi Zinthu Ziyenera Kuchitika Bwanji?

Pa mfundo yake yaikulu, mfundo yoyenerera ikutanthauza kuti boma liyenera kulemekeza ufulu wonse walamulo wa munthu. Mawuwa akupezeka mu Cover Amendment, imene imagwira ntchito ku boma, ndi Geneth Amendment, yomwe imawonjezera zofunika ku boma. Mpambo wa Finute unanena kuti palibe munthu amene ayenera kukhala "wodetsedwa wa moyo, ufulu, kapena katundu, popanda njira yalamulo. Mpake kugwiritsa ntchito chinenero chimodzi pomanga maboma. Zonsezi zimapanga pulogalamu yalamulo pansi pa imene boma silingagwe. Mchitidwe wake si woikidwa ndi malamulo; m’malo mwake, ndi lingaliro losinthasintha lomwe limasintha malinga ndi nkhani iliyonse, kufunikira kwa boma polimbana ndi ufulu wa munthu aliyense payekha.

Akatswiri a zamalamulo amagaŵa ntchito yofunika kukhala magulu aŵiri aakulu: ntchito yoyenerera ndi njira yofunikira. Productiveal productive project imasamala za njira ndi masitepe a boma ayenera kutsatira asanamanitse munthu wina moyo, ufulu, kapena katundu. Imafuna kudziŵidwa mwachilungamo, mwaŵi wa kumva, ndi kukonza mosakondera. Substantive projective system , kusiyanitsa, kutetezera ufulu wina wofunika wa boma, ngakhale ngati njira zogwiritsiridwa ntchito zili zangwiro. Zimenezi zimaphatikizapo ufulu wonga ngati chinsinsi, ukwati, kulera, ndi kulinganiza. Magulu onse aŵiriwo afunikira kuzindikira mmene njira zamakono zoyendera.

Mayesero Oyenera Amakhala Ofunika Kwambiri

Njira yoyenerera ndi yofunika kutsimikizira kuti milandu ikuchitidwa bwino ndiponso molungama. Imapereka maziko amene amatetezera ufulu wa woimbidwa mlandu ndi kutsimikizira kuti chilungamo chachitika. Popanda dongosolo la malamulo, dongosolo la malamulo lingakhale lopanda chilungamo ndi lopondereza. Mbali zotsatirazi zikusonyeza mmene njira yochitira zinthu imathandizira kuti ziyeso zikhale zolungama:

  • Kulunjika ku A Fair Heager : Anthu ali ndi ufulu wa kupereka mlandu wawo pamaso pa bwalo lopanda tsankho. Izi zimaphatikizapo mwaŵi wa kuitana mboni, mboni zotsutsa za mtanda, ndi kupereka umboni.
  • Kudziwitsa za Kulakwa: Anthu oimbidwa mlandu amalingaliridwa kukhala opanda liwongo kufikira atatsimikiziridwa kukhala ndi liwongo mosatsutsika m'milandu. Malamulo amakhalidwe abwino ameneŵa amasintha mtolo wa umboni ku oweruza.
  • Ayenera Uphungu: [[FLT :1] Otetezera ali ndi kuyenera kwa kuimira kwalamulo mkati mwa mlandu wawo. Kwa awo amene sangathe kupeza loya, boma liyenera kupereka limodzi(a woyenera wokhazikitsidwa mu Gideon v. Wainwright (63).
  • Kuweruza kwa Thupi: Mayeso ayenera kukhala otseguka kwa anthu kuti atsimikizire kuti ndi oonekera bwino ndi odziŵerengera mlandu. Mayeso achinsinsi amaletsedwa pansi pa Demetrisement ya Chisanu ndi chimodzi.
  • Kumanja kwa Kukopa: Anthu angatsutse chigamulo ngati akhulupirira kuti panali cholakwa poyesa mlandu. Zimenezi zimapereka umboni wokwanira wowongolera zolakwa.
  • Kuyenera kwa Kutsutsa Mboni: Mpambo wa Sixth Amendment umatsimikizira woimbidwa mlanduyo kuyenera kwa kuyang’anizana ndi oimba mlanduwo, kuletsa umboni wosadziŵika.
  • Kuchinjiriza Kulimbana ndi Kudzitsutsa Kokha: [[FL:1] Mpambo wa Malamulo wachisanu umatsimikizira kuti palibe munthu amene angakakamizidwe kudzitsutsa yekha, ufulu umene umatetezera ku kuulula kokakamiza.

Zitetezero zimenezi sizili zopanda kanthu. Zimagwirira ntchito pamodzi kupanga dongosolo lochepetsera zikhulupiriro zolakwika ndi kusunga chidaliro cha anthu m'malamulo. Mwachitsanzo, kugwirizana kwa lingaliro la kupanda liŵongo ndi kuyenera kwa kupereka uphungu kumathandiza kulinganiza malo oseŵera pakati pa munthu ndi boma. Popanda njira yoyenerera, ziyeso sizingakhale zoyenerera ndipo lamulo lingawonongeke.

Zimene Zinachitika Akale Akali Pafupi

Lingaliro la njira yoyenerera liri ndi chiyambi cha mbiri yakale. Kuli kolondola kumbuyo ku Magna Carta mu 1215, imene inatsimikizira kuti palibe aliyense amene angachotsedwe ufulu popanda njira yoyenerera ya lamulo. M’zaka mazana ambiri, lamulo limeneli lakhala losinthika ndi kutsimikiziridwanso kupyolera m’zikalata zalamulo zosiyanasiyana ndi zigamulo za khoti. Kumvetsetsa mbiri imeneyi kumathandiza kumveketsa chifukwa chake njira yoikidwiratu imakhala mza wa malamulo amakono.

Magna Carta

Magna Carta inali chikalata chotchuka chimene chinayala maziko a malamulo amakono. Inayambitsa lingaliro lakuti aliyense, kuphatikizapo mfumu, anali wogonjera ku lamulo. Ili linali sitepe lofunika kwambiri pokhazikitsa lamulo ndi kuteteza ufulu wa munthu. Ili ndi mutu 39 wa Magna Carta, yemwe analengeza kuti: "Palibe munthu womasuka kapena kumangidwa, kapena kuchotsedwa ufulu wake kapena chuma, kapena kuchotsedwa, kapena kuchotsedwa kwake m'njira ina iliyonse, kapena kuimbidwa mokakamiza, kapena kutumiza ena kuti achite zimenezo, kusiyapo lamulo la dzikolo kapena lamulo. Mawu akuti "lamulo la dziko" pambuyo pake anasintha n'kulowa "kuyambika kwa lamulo. [FBBB] (Brish]) (matembenuzi Lwishopu ya MaFF: F.

Lamulo la Chingelezi Lofala ndi America Wolamulidwa ndi Atsamunda

Pambuyo pa Magna Carta, lamulo la Chicheŵa linapitirizabe kukulitsa lingaliro la kachitidwe kabwino. Pambuyo pa Kusintha kwa Manja (1628) ndi Bill of Rights yachingelezi inalimbikitsa ziletso pa mphamvu yachifumu ndi kutsimikizira kuyenera kwa kuzenga mlandu. Malamulo ameneŵa anaperekedwa ku maiko a ku America, kumene anawonekera m'malamulo a konsi ndi malamulo a boma. Pambuyo pa kusintha kwa America, oyambitsawo anakhazikitsa njira yoyenerera kukhala Demendment monga kupenda boma latsopano la boma. Mawu akuti "Mbali wa lamulo" anatengedwa mwachindunji kuchokera ku lamulo la Edward III limene linabwereza ndi kuwonjezera Magna Carta.

Malamulo a U.S. ndi Malamulo Okonzanso

Ku United States, njira yoyenerera yatchulidwa bwino lomwe mu Lamulo lachisanu ndi la 145. Mpambo wa Findrence , umene unavomerezedwa mu 1791 monga mbali ya Bill of Rights, poyamba unagwira ntchito ku boma. Pambuyo pa Nkhondo ya Chiweniweni, 144th Amendment (1868) inafutukula njira yofunikira ku mayiko. Kuwonjezera kumeneku kunali kofunika chifukwa chakuti kunalola makhoti a boma kupenda malamulo ndi zochita zimene zinatsekereza ufulu wa nzika za ufulu wa nzika. M'kupita kwa nthaŵi, Khoti Lapamwamba linagwiritsira ntchito ntchito njira ya 144th Amend Reformation kuphatikiza mbali yaikulu ya Bill of Rights polimbana ndi maboma . Kuteroku kutanthauza kuti boma liyeneranso kulemekeza ufulu wa kulankhula, uphungu, woweruza, ndi kuteteza ena mopanda nzeru.

Njira Zoyenera Kuzitsatira

Njira yoyenerera ingakhale mitundu iŵiri yaikulu: njira yofunikira ndi njira yoigwiritsira ntchito.

Mmene Zinthu Zimayendera

Kutsatira malamulo kumakhudza njira zimene anthu amagwiritsira ntchito poweruza milandu.

  • Tnoice : Anthu ayenera kudziŵitsidwa za milandu kapena zochita zawo. Izi ziyenera kuperekedwa panthaŵi yake ndi tsatanetsatane wokwanira kulola kukonzekera.
  • Okhoza kumva: Otetezera ayenera kukhala ndi mwaŵi wa kupereka mlandu wawo, kuphatikizapo kupereka umboni ndi mikangano, pamaso pa wopanga chosankha wosaloŵerera.
  • Tribunal: Opanga chosankha ayenera kukhala opanda tsankho. Oweruza ndi oweruza amene ali ndi mikangano ya chiwongola dzanja sangalekeze.
  • Kuyenera Kupereka Umboni: Maparishoni ayenera kuloledwa kudziŵikitsa umboni woyenerera ndi mboni zotsutsa za arnome-exine.
  • Kumanja ku Chigamulo Cholembedwa: M'mawu ambiri, malongosoledwe olembedwa a chotulukapo afunikira kutheketsa kupenda kwatanthauzo.

Khoti Lapamwamba lakhazikitsa kuyesa kofeŵa kwa kulinganiza kwa njira yoyenerera m' Mathews v. Elditridge [7]. Kuyesa kumayesa zinthu zitatu: chikondwerero chaumwini pamtengo, upandu wa kusoŵa kolakwika m'makonzedwe amene alipo, ndi chikondwerero cha boma cha kuyendetsa bwino. Kuyesa kumeneku kumalola makhoti kupanga njira zolinganizidwira ku mawu otsimikizirika [1] kaamba ka chitsanzo, kutha kwa ubwino kumafuna kuyankha kowonjezereka kuposa laisensi ya dalai.

Mmene Zinthu Zimayendera

Kumbali ina, njira yoyenerera yotetezera ufulu wina wofunika ku kuloŵerera kwa boma, ngakhale ngati njira zoyendetsera zinthu zili zoyenera. Imatsimikizira kuti malamulo ndi malamulo sizikuphwanya ufulu wa munthu pa moyo, ufulu, ndi katundu. Mtundu umenewu wa ntchito yofunika umaphatikizapo nkhani zonga:

  • Ufulu wa Kuyenera kwa Kulera: [[FLT :1] Kuyenera kwa kupanga zosankha zaumwini ponena za kulera, banja, ndi kuyanjana, monga momwe zimadziŵikira mu Griswold v. Connecticut[[[FL:3] (1965]) ndi [FL:4] Lawrence v. Texas . (2003]
  • [[FLT: 0] Ufulu ndi Ufulu Wabanja: Kuyenera kwa kukwatira, kukhala pamodzi, ndi kulera ana, kotetezeredwa m'nkhani zonga Loving v. Virginia [1] (1967]) ndi [FLT:] Obergefell v. Hodges . (2015].
  • [[FLT: 0] Ufulu Wamakolo: [[FLT :1] Ufulu wa makolo kupanga zosankha ponena za maphunziro ndi chisamaliro cha ana awo, wotsimikiziridwa mu Pierce v. Society of Achenje (1925]) ndi Troxel v. Granville [2000].
  • Moodical Autonomy : Kuyenera kwa kukana mankhwala ndi kupanga zosankha ponena za thupi la munthu, zosonyezedwa mu [[FLT :2] Cruzan v. Mtsogoleri, Missouri Dipatimenti ya Zaumoyo (1990) ndi [FLT: 4.] Roe v. Wade . [7]

Anthu otsutsa amanena kuti kuweruza kumapatsa oweruza nzeru kwambiri, pamene kuli kwakuti ochirikiza amakuona kukhala kofunika kuti ateteze ufulu pa kuloŵerera boma kosafunikira.

Kutsatira Makonzedwe

Kuzindikira mmene njira yoyenerera imagwirira ntchito m'mikhalidwe yeniyeni nkofunika kwambiri kuti mumvetse tanthauzo lake. Nazi zitsanzo zina za njira zoyenerera zochitira zinthu m’mbali zosiyanasiyana za malamulo:

  • Mayeso Oimbidwa mlandu: Otetezera ayenera kudziŵitsidwa za zoyenera zawo ndi milandu yowazenga, ndipo ali ndi kuyenera kwa loya. Boma liyenera kutsimikizira liwongo loposa chikayikiro chomveka, ndipo oimbidwa mlandu angakhale chete, mboni zopimira, ndi kuchonderera chigamulo.
  • [[FLT: 0] Milandu ya Chivomezi: Anthu ophatikizidwa m'mikangano yachiŵeniŵeni ali ndi kuyenera kwa kugamula mlandu kolungama ndi mwaŵi wa kupereka umboni. Pamene kuli kwakuti zoyenera zina za mwambo sizili zocheperapo kuposa m'nkhani zaupandu, njira yofunika imafunikirabe kudziŵidwa, kumvetsera, ndi woweruza wopanda tsankho.
  • Administrative Livings: Anthu amene akuyang'anizana ndi zochita za boma, monga ngati kuchotsedwa laisensi, kupindula kukana, kapena kutha kwa ntchito, ali ndi kuyenera kwa kupikisana ndi machitidwe amenewo mwa njira yolungama. Mwachitsanzo, asanaimitse laisensi ya ukatswiri, bungwe liyenera kupereka chidziŵitso ndi mwaŵi wa kugamula.
  • [[FLT: 0] Chilango cha Phungu: [[FLT :1] Mu Gos v. Lopez (1975), Khoti Lapamwamba linagamula kuti ophunzira a sukulu za onse oyang'anizana ndi kuchotsedwa ayenera kulandira chidziŵitso cha pakamwa kapena cholembedwa cha milanduyo ndi mwaŵi wa kulongosola mbali yawo. Mlanduwu unawonjezera njira zotetezera zoyenerera ku masinthidwe a maphunziro.
  • [[FLT: 0] Kugaŵikana: Pamene kuli kwakuti kuzenga mlandu kuli kwachiŵeniŵeni mmalo mwa upandu, makhoti anena kuti anthu osaba ali ndi ufulu woyenerera wochita zinthu, kuphatikizapo kuyenera kwa kuzenga mlandu ndi kuimira (ngakhale kuti uphungu woikidwa ndi boma m’zochitika zambiri).
  • [[FLT: 0] Mapangano a Thanzi la Matsi: [[FLT :1] Kudzipereka kwamwadzidzidzi kwa wothandiza odwala misala kumafuna njira yoyenerera, kuphatikizapo kuweruzidwa, kuyenera kwa uphungu, ndi umboni wowonekera bwino wa upandu. Khoti Lapamwamba linandandalika miyezo imeneyi mu [[FLT:] Addington v. Texas [1] [1997]

Zitsanzo zimenezi zikusonyeza kuti ntchito yoyenerera si mfundo yokha yokhudza zonse.

Mavuto Amene Tingakumane Nawo

Ngakhale kuti ntchitoyi ndi yofunika kwambiri, malamulo a masiku ano amakumana ndi mavuto osiyanasiyana.

Anthu okonzanso malamulo akupitiriza kulimbikitsa chitetezo champhamvu, kuphatikizapo kuwonjezera ndalama zoperekedwa kwa oteteza anthu, kuchotsa ndalama zoyendetsera ntchito, ndiponso kuonetsetsa kuti anthu akugwiritsa ntchito njira za malamulo a boma.

Malingaliro a Padziko Lonse Ayamba Kuchitika

Pamene kuli kwakuti United States iri ndi mwambo woyenerera, lingaliro liripo m'mitundu yosiyanasiyana ya dziko lonse. Ziŵiya za ufulu wachibadwidwe, zonga Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) ndi International Pangano la International Partive on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), zikutsimikizira zoyenera kuyesa. Mfundo 10 mwa UDHR imapereka: "Yense ali ndi udindo wokwanira ku ku kumvetsera kwa anthu onse mosakondera ndi mosakondera ndi mwalamulo, potsimikiza zoyenera ndi zoyenerera ndi zoyenera zake ndi zoyenera zake ndi mlandu uliwonse kwa iye. Mofananamo, Chigawo 14 cha ICPR chimapereka njira zotetezera zoyenerera, kuphatikizapo kulakwa, ndi kuyenera kwa uphungu. [FL:] [FL: [HCR:]

Malamulo osiyanasiyana amayendera njira zosiyanasiyana mogogomezera. Mayiko a boma, monga aja a m’mayiko a ku Ulaya, kaŵirikaŵiri amadalira chitsanzo cha oweruza amene amachita mbali yogwira ntchito. Malamulo wamba, monga aja a ku United States, United Kingdom, ndi Australia, amagogomezera kukambirana kochitidwa. Komabe, malamulo apamwamba a chidziŵitso cholungama, kuvomereza kosakondera, ndi ufulu womveka ndi wapadziko lonse. Khoti la European Court of Human Rights limakakamiza kuti anthu atetezedwe mofanana ndi Chigawo 6 cha European Convention on Human Rights. Lamulo lachikhalidwe lapamwamba limathandiza kusonyeza kuti njira yoyenerera si yachikhalidwe chokha koma ndiyo kukondera kwa chilungamo.

Kumaliza

Ntchito yoyenerera njofunika kutsimikizira ziyeso zolungama ndi kutetezera ufulu wa munthu aliyense. Kufunika kwake m'mbiri, kuyambira ku Magna Carta mpaka ku Malamulo amakono a United States, ndi mayeso ake ogwira ntchito kudutsa upandu, chiŵeruzo, ndi maulamuliro amagogomezera kufunika kwake kosatha. Panthaŵi imodzimodziyo, njira yofunikira kuyang'anira malamulo, kudalirana kwa madongosolo a zasayansi, masinthidwe a zasayansi, ndi zitsenderezo za dziko. Aphunzitsi ndi ophunzira omwe ayenera kuzindikira zonse ziŵiri ndi njira yoyenerera yochirikizira dongosolo lolungama. Monga momwe Khoti Lapamwamba latsimikizira mobwerezabwereza, chitetezo cha njira yoyenerera sichirikizidwa ndi ntchito yauchikulu koma si chitetezero chachikulu pa ulamuliro wankhanza. Kuchirikiza malamulo apamwamba ameneŵa kumakhalabe ndi kusamala kusungitsa malamulo ndi kusungitsa ufulu wa lamulo ndi kusungitsa ufulu wa anthu.