Sumo

Dare rapamusoro zvikurusa reUnited States rinomira somuturikiri mukuru weBumbiro reMitemo, basa rinoiisa pakati penhau dzapamutemo nedzenzanga. Nepo ruramisiro dzichigadzwa nokuda kwoupenyu kuti dzive nechokwadi chokuzvimirira padzvinyiriro yezvamatongerwe enyika, Dare Actrsquo; chiremera hachisi kuzviisa panzvimbo inogariranwa nokubvuma kudzorwa kwehurumende. Kubva pakuva sangano riri kure rinoshanda muruzerwe, Dare rinoumbwa zvikuru nezviito, uye kudzorwa kwevagari vemowo zvavo. Kubva kumunhu mumwe nomumwe anozviisa mungozi kudenha mutemo usina kururama, kupfurikidza namasangano anochinja murangariro wapachena pamakumi amakore, injini inoparira kuchinjika. Injini inoparira kuti vagari vagari vagari vemo vanonzwisisa nokunzwisisa nenzira inobudirira sei ukama hunokosha pakati pedare guru, uye kudzorwa kwesimba pakati penzangawose. Kubva pamunhu anowana dzidzo yemitemo yemitemo yehurumende yehurumende yehurumende yehurumende inotonga zviri pamutemo, inonangidzira mutemo unodzorwa kupfurikidza nomutemo wemitemo wapamutemo.

Michina Yokuva Nomubatanidzwa Mudare Rapamusorosoro

Mitauro Mipfupi Yavanhu veAmicus Curiae: Inzwi Rinojekesesa

Gamuchidzanwa reamicuscuriae, kana kuti “ shamwari yedare, ” rakashanduka kuva motokari huru nokuda kwavagari vemo namapoka emhindu kuzivisa zvakananga ruramisiro. Chikamu chipfupi chinobvumira kusatora rutivi kunhau kugovera mashoko akapoteredza, unyanzvi, kana kuti mashoko anogona kujekesera miuyo yakafara yehurumende. Kuvagari vemo, uyu mutsetse wakananga kudare rapamusorosorosa munyika. Muzvinoitika zvakatanhamara, upfumi huduku hwaaya hunogona kuva hukuru. Mukati me [[FLT: 0] Obergefell. v. Hodges [20], Dare rakagamuchira anopfuura 140 amomubatanidzwa, masangano makuru enhau, kubatanidza masangano ezvorudzidziso, uye masangano makuru anogoveranwa emitemo yakapiwa namapoka eroorano.

Nenzira yakafanana, mu Brown v. Board of Flay (1954), maamicu mapfupi akaita basa guru. Department yeSahlulero yakaisa nharo pfupi kuti mukurumbira wamarudzi ose wakuvadza muHondo yeDemon. Nhau yeNaACP Legal Defence (54), wakatsamira zvikuru pamitengo yendangariro neyomugariro wezvinhu kuti iratidzire miuyo inoparadza yetsika pavana vechitema. Kupfurikidza nokupinza mari kuti itengese vatsigiri vezvo zvapamutemo vane unyanzvi uye nharo dzinogombedzera, vagari vemo vanoshandisa chirongwa cheAmmutengo chinoshandiswa kusimbisa Dare kuti rinzwisise nyika chaiyoiyo yezvisaruso. [FLD] [FFF]

Fariro Yavanhu Namatare Okuedza

Vagari havagaromirira mhaka kuti iwane. Kupfurikidza nefariro yavose (PIL), mapoka anogadzira nokushingaira denho dzapamutemo dzinodikanwa kupedza kusaruramisira kwegadziriro. Iyi "nhau" inobatanidza nokungwarira kusarudza mutengi, maidi, uye chiremera chapamutemo kugadzira motokari yakanakisisa yokudenha mutemo kana kuti muitiro. NAACP Leavince Fund yakavandudza iyi nzira iri madikanwa pakati pezana ramakore rechi20, kuvaka nenzira yamaune zviitiko zvakadenha "Pecrence asi zvakafanana" mudzidzo yakapedza kufunda, imba, uye zvokufambisa pamberi pezvo. Brown brown. Board

Nhasi, masangano akadai seAmerican Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), Institute for Justice, uye Sierra Club anopfuurira iri gamuchidzanwa. Apo mugari wemo anobvuma kuva mupomerwi mumhaka yebvunzo, anozviremedza amene mutoro mukuru. Anozviwana amene kukuwana kwapamutemo, kunzvera kwapachena, uye kazhinji kazhinji makore okusava nechokwadi. Basa razvo, zvisinei, rinokosha. Zvinogovera chinodikanwa chemitemo chekongiri ye “chipo kana gakava," kushandura chigumburo chepamutemo munhau yavanhu inogona kuendesa mberi mutemo. Ichi chimiro chokutora rutivi rutsvene iratidziro rune simba rokuva mugari wenhaka.

Kutora Rutivi Rwakananga Semapati Nezvikumbiro

Kupfuura kurongeka kwakarongwa, basa gurusa iro mugari wemo anogona kuita kuoneka pamberi peDare sechikamu chakananga kunhau. Dare reSupreme Actsquo; madocket akavakirwa chose chose pavanhu vakapinda mudare vanotsvaka ruramisiro. Mazita akabatanidzwa kumirano yetsika yetsika haasati achingovawo zvapamutemo; anomirira upenyu nerwisano zvavanhu chaivoivoivo. Ernesto Minda ’ kukwidza kwakatungamirira kuchinodikanwa icho mapurisa anonyumwira kodzero dzavo. Norma McChorvey, pasi pePriptm "Jane Roe," akadenha pamutemo weTexas &quo; kubvisa mimba.

Ava vanhu vanowanzozvimirira vamene, kana kuti vanomirirwa nezano reprobo, asi ushingi hwavo hwomunhu oga ndihwo hunoparira chinjo yebumbiro remitemo. Vanoisa nhau dzavo dzomunhu oga nokudisa pakati pekurukurirano yorudzi, vachitsungirira dzvinyiriro dzenhema kuti vatange nheyo kana kuti vadzivirire kodzero. Tsika yemitemo yeAmerica inotsamira pakuda uku kumira nokudenha chiito chehurumende. Pasina ava vagari vemo, Dare ringadai risina mhaka dzokusarudza, uye Bumbiro remitemo richaramba riri tsamba yakafa.

Kuchinja Kwakananga Kunoitwa Nemaonero Evanhu uye Zvematongerwe Enyika

Kuisa Migumisiro Isingakuvadzi Pakati Pemasangano Enzanga Nezvisarudzo Zvokutonga

Nepo Dare Rapamusoro rakagadzirwa kuva sangano rinotsiva vanhu, harishandi muchadenga. Masangano enzanga akapararira uye kuchinjana mumurangariro wavose zvinoparira mugariro wezvamatongerwe enyika netsika umo ruramisiro dzinoita zvisarudzo zvavo. Dare kazhinji kazhinji rinoshanda zvikurusa apo rinochinja ndokudzikamisa chinjo yave ichitoparadza nzanga. Kumuka kweboka ravashandi muma1930, somuenzaniso, kutangira kutsanangura kweDare ’ kuchinja kunoshamisa mukududzirwa kwaro kweChommercale, uko kwakabvumira nokuda kweTenderero itsva. Nguva pfupi yapfuura, mhindu yezvimiro zvendangariro zvavose pamusoro pekuenzana pakati pa 1990 ne 2010 yakagadzira mugariro umo mukutonga [FFF:]

Vagari vanosimudzira masangano aya kupfurikidza nokunyunyuta, dzidzo yavose, kupesvedzera, uye kudzora tsika. Musangano weWomen’ Suffrages wakapedza makumi amakore uchivaka tsigiro yavose nemitemo inodzorwa nedare rehurumende pamberi pedare vakava nebanza rokududzira Dare rechi19. Masangano aya anoita kuti kuda kwezvamatongerwe enyika uye kukwidziridza kushata kwetsika kunowanzotangira chinjo yepamutemo. Anoratidzira kuti kududzira mutemo hakusi muitiro wemiitiro asi kurukurirano mhenyu pakati pavanhu nematare.

Kubatsira Kunoita Mugariro Wokutonga

Vagari vesimba varefu zvikurusa venhambo refu vanopesvedzera zvikuru vanobata paDare Rapamusorosoro ibasa ravanoita mukusarudza purezidhendi navatevedzeri vanosimbisa ruramisiro. Sarudzo yapurezidhendi inowanzorongwa pane zviono zvinokwikwidzana zvedare. Vatambi vanoisa miganhu yedare yakananga vanogona kuva netapuro yakananga paDare ’ kunyora kwamakumi amakore. Kana kunyoresa kunoitwa, muitiro wokusimbisa unova nzvimbo huru nokuda kwokuvimbisana kwevagari vemo. Mapoka acho anofarikanya kumativi ose kukurudzira mitezo yavo kuti vaonane navasaruki, kuzivisa, uye kugovera chipupuriro mukati medare.

Kuiswa kwemifungo kwakakundikana kwaMutongi Robert Bork muna 1987 kunomira somuenzaniso wemiitiro inobudirira yezviito zvemiitiro yavagari vemo. Mubatanidzwa wekodzero dzavagari vemo, vakadzi ’ kodzero, uye mapoka ezvokutengeserana nenzira inobudirira akaumba uzivi hwake hwokutonga sehunobva mutsika huru, kuchitungamirira kukurambwa kwake neDare. Nenzira yezvepamwero, kusimbiswa kwokukurumidza kweMutongi Amy Coney Barrett muna 2020 kwakaratidzira simba resimba rechipfuvara charo chezvamatongerwe enyika chinoshandisa kuda kwacho kupfurikidza neDare guru rakabatana. Kupfurikidza nokupinda muSarudzo nemuro, vagari vemo vanoshandisa nzverongedzero huru panhungamiro yeDare reHurumende.

Kudzidzisa Mutemo Nokuchinja Kwezvivako

Vagariwo vanoumba mamiriro ezvinhu epamutemo umo Dare Rapamusoro rinoshanda kupfurikidza nokupesvedzera Congress. Chikamu III cheBumbiro reMitemo chinopa simba rinokosha kurondedzera udzori hwematare ehurumende nokupa mutemo unogona kupindura kukutonga. Somuenzaniso, pashure pokunge Dare raganhurira zvikuru kushandiswa kweReligious Freedom Reconsole Act (RFRA) kumitemo mu City of Boerne v. Flpores[FLT] (1997), mapoka edhigitacy aitendeukira kumitemo yehurumende, achipfuura zvinobudirira zviri munyika yose.

Nharo pamusoro pechinjo dzokuvakwa kwedare rimene, dzakadai seganhuriro dzeshoko pamitemo kana kuti kufutunura chiverengero chezvigaro pabhenji (romudare), dzinosundwa nechiito chevagari vemo nedzvinyiriro yezvamatongerwe enyika. Nepo iyi kurukurirano kazhinji kazhinji inoratidzika kuva isinganzwisisiki, dzinomirira nzvero ine simba pasimba rokutonga. Vagari vemo vanodzidziswa pamusoro pegadziriro yedare vanogona kuraira kuzvidavirira kuvamiriri varo vakasarudzwa, vachipesvedzera mitemo nemiganhu mukati maro iyo Dare rinofanira kushanda mazviri.

Kuwana Ruramisiro: Kodzero, Mhinganidzo, uye Basa Rezano reProBono

Kodzero yeBumbiro reMitemo Yokutsvaka Kugadziriswa

Seri yevagari vemo vanopinda mudare redare redare ikodzero yebumbiro remitemo yokukumbira hurumende kuti ipedze kunyunyuta, inovimbiswa neFirst Amendment. Iyi kodzero inovimbisa kuti vanhu vane nzira yepamutemo yokudenha zviito zvehurumende. Kana mugari wemo akakwidza sangano rehurumende kana kuti kudenha kodzero yemitemo yehurumende, vari kushandisa kodzero huru yehurumende. Uku kusvika kumatare kunova nechokwadi chokuti mutongi anoramba ari bazi rehurumende rinobvuma uye rine mhosva. Pasi peiyi nzira, kodzero dzinoteverwa muBumbiro remitemo dzichava pasi pezvido zvoruzhinji rezvematongerwe enyika.

Zvipingamupinyi Zvemari Nezvemari Kudare

Pasinei zvapo nekodzero yokutaura kuti ikodzero yokupinda mumatare, mhinganidzo dzinokosha dziripo dzinodzivisa vagari vemo vakawanda kuva nezuva ravo muDare Rapamusorosoro. Mutengo wokupa mari unoda unyanzvi mugadziriro yehurumende yakaoma uye mutemo webumbiro remitemo. Zvinodikanwa zveDoctrine zvakafanana nokumira, kurota, uye kuibva kwapera semitemo yokuchengeta magedhi, zvinoganhurira munhu anogona kuunza nyaya uye kuti riini. Mugari wemo anofanira kuratidza kukuvadziko yakakotsemuka uye inotorerwa kupfurikidza nechisarudzo chakanaka. Izvi zvitendero zvinovimbisa kuti Dare riri kugadzikisa zviitiko chaizvoizvo panzvimbo pemibvunzo inofungidzirwa, asi rinogonawo kudzivisa zvinetso zvakafara zvemutemo pakunzwika.

Kunzwisisa kuti nei dzimwe nyaya dzichiva nyaya dzinokosha asi vamwe vachitambura mumatare enhando. Basa rokutamba harisi repamusoro - soro, uye vaya vane zivo nemari vane zvavanowana pakuumba mutemo.

Basa Rinokatyamadza Reyamuro Yapamutemo NemaAttney

Nokuda kwavagari vemo vasina zviwanikwa zvemari, kusvika kuDare Rapamusorosoro kazhinji kazhinji kunorevererwa negamuchidzanwa reprobono mubhizimisi remitemo reAmerica. Vadziviriri vamasangano eyamuro yapamutemo, uye magweta pamafemu makuru emitemo vanotsaurira zviuru zvamaawa kumirira vatengi vakakurumbira mumitongo yemari. Mhaka yechiratidzo Gideon v. Wainwr[[FLT][[F:1] [1963], iyo yakasimbisa kodzero yokupa zano nokuda kwevapomeri vemhosva, iyo imene yakasimbiswa negweta rakatanhamara neDare rakagadzwa nedare kuti rimiririre zvikumbiro probo. Bala zvimwe , kubva kuvasungwa &osququo; kodzero dzekukumbira, dzinosvika kuDare redare nemhaka bedzi yetsauriro.

American Bar Association nemamwe masangano epamutemo anokurudzira nokushingaira iyi tsika, achiziva kuti kusvika kururamisiro hakugoni kuva chinhu choumbozha chinochengeteka chakachengetedzwa chinokosha, kuva nechokwadi chokuti zvinoitika zvemitezo yenzanga ine ngozi zvikurusa zvinomiririrwa mudare rakakwirira zvikurusa. Pasina iro, Court’ madhingi angawedzera zvikuru kufambirwa nevavakirwi vemakambani uye vane simba.

Kuvaka Mugari Wemo Anorayirwa neBumbiro Romutemo

Kunzwisisa Kuhwirudzurwa Kwokutonga uye Kuvambwa Kwematare

Mugari wemo anobudirira anoda nzwisiso huru yenzira iyo mabasa edare. dzidzo yeCivic inofanira kutambanukira kupfuura mapazu matatu ehurumende kuti ibatanidze mifungo yakadai sehwirudzuro hwedare, yakagadzwa mu Marbury v. Madison [1803], uye nheyo ye madecis[[FLT]] [[FLT]] [ukuru hwemiedzo]). Apo vagari vemo vanonzwisisa musiyano pakati pedudziro yemitemo nedudziro yebumbiro remitemo, vanogona kunzvera nokungwaramuranisa magadziro anoitwa nemitemo inobudiswa nedare. Masangano akazvitsaurira kuruwa, se [FLT] Constitution Concental , anopards protoo anoshanda zvikuru mukuita murairo wemitemo inoreva murairo wapamutemo.

Kubatanidza Zvisarudzo Zvenyika Yepasi Nezuva

Chimwe chedenho kuvimbisana kwevagari vemo kwakapfuuridzirwa ipfungwa yokuti basa reDare gurusa ’ ibasa risinganzwisisiki kana kuti rinobviswa muruzivo rwokuzviwanira rwezuva riri rose. Zvomene, zvisarudzo zvaro zvinodokuva rutivi rwuri rwose rwoupenyu hwazvino uno. Mirenda mhedzi] inodzorwa mukati mokusungwa nenhau yeDare guru redare. Kudzora kwemhepo nokushatiswa kwemvura kunoyerera kubva muzvinoitika zvinodudzira Discoo Act neClect yemvura yakachena. Mitemo inodzora utano, inishuwarenzi, uye mari yevadzidzi inoumbwa zvikuru neDare reChivi. [[FLT]

Apo vagari vemo vanoziva danda ravo vamene muDare ’ zvisarudzo (8) kuti chisarudzo pakodzero dzokuvhota chinogona sei kutapura kupinda kwavo muvhoti, kana kuti chisarudzo pamibhadharo yomubatanidzwa chinogona kutapura mubhadharo wavo nejekiseni () ivo sezvingabvira zvikuru kutora rutivi mumiitiro inoumba dare. Kuita aya mashoko anooneka kunokosha nokuda kwokusimudzira roorano nembavha.

Mugumo: Mugari Wemo Somutarisiri Wokupedzisira weBumbiro Romutemo

Dare Rapamusoro zvikurusa isangano rechienzi munzanga yehurumende inosarudzwa navanhu. Rine simba guru, bva mitezo yaro haisarudzwi, uye haigoni kumanikidzira mitemo yayo imene. chiremera charo chinotsamira pahwaro husina kusimba hwekodzero dzavanhu nechivimbo chesangano. Uku kuva pamutemo kunotsigirwa kupfurikidza nebatano inopfuurira, ine simba navagari vemo varinobatira. Kubva mukuisa mashoko mapfupiti echisodo cheapote, ushingi hwesimba renzanga nebhokisi rebhurokopoti remitemo.

Mhinganidzo dzokutora rutivi ndedzechokwadi, asi zvakafananawo zvishandiso. Mugari wemo anoziva anonzwisisa miitiro yechinjo yapamutemo haasati achingova zvake mucherechedzi wenhau asi mutsigiri mukusikwa kwayo. Zvisarudzo zvechiratidzo zvinorondedzera rusununguko rweAmerica hazvisi zvingori magwaro apamutemo anopiwa kubva pamusoro. Izvo chibereko chavanhu vasingaverengeki vanosarudza kumira, kutaura, uye kuita basa rakaoma rehurumende. Nguva yemberi yemitemo yeAmerica inotsamira pakuti vagari veAmerica vachapfuurira kugamuchira mutoro iwoyo here.