Kutanga: Kupesana Kwepfungwa Dzokutonga Nekodzero Dzebumbiro Remitemo

Gadziriro yapamutemo yeAmerica iri padzikamo yakakomba pakati peganhuriro yokutonga negadziriro yokutonga. Nepo vatongi vachikarirwa kududzira mutemo, kwete kuusika, dzidziso yokubatanidzwa kunosarudza() muitiro uyo Bill of Rights inoshandiswa kuhurumende ($) wakaumbwa zvikuru navatongi vakaita basa rokushingaira mukufutunura dziviriro dzebumbiro remitemo. Nyaya ino inonzvera kuti chiito chokutonga chakasunda sei mhindumupindu yokusarudza, kuchinja dziviriro dzakaganhurirwa dzehurumende kuva nzvimbo yorudzi yerusununguko rwomunhu oga.

Chiito chorutongeso, chinowanzorondedzerwa semitemo inoratidzira zvisarudzo zvomunhu oga kana kuti muitiro panzvimbo pokunamatira zvakasimba kumuenzaniso kana kuti rugwaro, zvose zviri zviviri zvakarumbidzwa nokutsoropodzwa. Mumashoko akapoteredza okubatanidza kubatanidzwa, kuita chiito kwakareva Dare Gurusa rinotambanudzira maruramiro chaiwo kunyika pahwaro pahwaro hwenhau, kunyange apo Bumbiro reMitemo rapakuvamba risina kuraira zvakajeka kushandiswa kwakadaro. Kunzwisisa uyu muitiro kunoda kutanga kunzwisisa kuti ibatanidzei yakasarudzwa uye nei kuri nhau.

Kurondedzera Kusarudza

Kusarudza idzidziso yebumbiro remitemo inomuka muAdmyment of the 14th Procession Claus. Chikamu chacho chinotaura kuti hakuna hurumende icha “paradza munhu upi noupi woupenyu, rusununguko, kana kuti zvinhu, pasina mutoo wakafanira womutemo.” Dare Rapamusorosoro rakadudzira ikoku kureva kuti dzimwe maruramiro makuru muBill of Rights ano“nyoreswa” mukurwisana nehurumende(revommo nehurumende dzomunzvimbomo zvinofanira kuzviremekedza chaizvo sezvinoita hurumende yehurumende yehurumende. Zvisinei, Dare harina kushandisa kugadziriswa kwose panguva imwe; panzvimbo pezvo, rakasarudza kodzero dzakananga panguva imwe, mutoo unozivikanwa sechinosarudzwa.

Iyi nzira inosiana nehwerengedzo, iyo ingadai yakaita gadziriro iri yose yeBill of Rights inoshanda kuhurumende. Mutongi Hugo Black akatsigira hwerengedzo asi akarasikirwa nekurukurirano. Kusarudza kwakawana, achipa chisarudzo cheDare kusarudza kuti ikodzero dzipi dziri “mumufungo werusununguko rwakarairwa” (mashoko akabva kuMutongi Cardozo mu Palko v.Connecticut[F:1], 1937) uye nokudaro anofanirwa nokuchengetwa kwehurumende mukurwisana namaruwa.

Kutonga kunotanga nemhaka yokuti chisarudzo cheDare chokusarudza maruramiro irwo rumene kushandiswa kwesimba.Matare anofanira kusarudza kuti ikodzeroi dzinokosha, uye rutongeso irworwo runowanzobatanidza kunzvera kunokosha kwenhau, tsika, uye mipimo yapanguva imwe cheteyo.

Nhoroondo: Kubva Pakudzora Kuenda Pakuita Muitiro Wokutsigira

Nguva yeDual Federalism (PUD - 1920)

Pamberi pezana ramakore rechi20, Bill of Rights yakashanda bedzi kuhurumende yomubatanidzwa. Dare Rapamusoro zvikurusa rakaitwa mu Barron v. Baltimore (1833) kuti Fift Amendment haina kubatanidza migariro. Uku kuparadzana kukuru pakati penzvimbo dzehurumende nehurumende kwakaratidzira uzivi hwekudzoro: matare aisundwa kumitemo yehurumende ndokudzivisa Hurumende inodzorwa nemhosho dzechipiri pasi pemitemo yeSanihe.

Reconstructs [1] Dare rakabvisa nzvimbo yacho nokuisa zvirambidzo zvehurumende pahurumende, asi Dare rakatanga kuirava zvishoma. Mu Game-Daaas (1873] [183]), Dare rakabvisa Maropafadzo kana kuti Immunion Claus, richisiya Sct Procession Claus semotokari huru yokutsiva. Kunyange zvakadaro, Dare raida kuti “kudzosera uye nokukurumidza” rirambe kudzorwa parudyi rwakanga“ rwakasimba kwazvo mumagamuchidzanwa nehana zvavanhu vedu sezvinofanira kuva chinhu chinokosha."

Shift Itangiriro: Gitlow v. New York (1925)

Nguva yokuchinja yakauya ne Gitlow v. New York, umo Dare Rapamusorosoro kwenguva yokutanga rakashandisa gadziriro yeFirst Amendment / rusununguko rwokutaura(kuna hurumende). Kunyange zvazvo Dare rakatsigira kupwiswa kwaGitlow kwokubudisa musocialist projecto, rakazivisa kuti “rusununguko rwokutaura nerwokutsikirira zvokutsikirira, runodzivirirwa neFirst Amendment kubva kuBridgiment neCongresstion, (imoslate progreaders) iri pakati pekodzero dzomunhu oga ne‘mabhiribhiri inodzivirirwa nemuitiro wakafanira weGineth Demendment kubva mukushatation yakaitwa neUnited States.”

Mashoko aya akaratidza chimiro chitsva chokutonga: Dare raida kudzivirira nokushingaira kodzero dzevanhu pazviito zvehurumende, kunyange zvazvo mashoko eFirst Amendment achingodudza chete Congress.Vatsoropodzi vakarondedzera uku kuzvipira nemhaka yokuti Dare rakanga richirava kodzero duku dzeChenjero reCYClaus pasina tsigiro yakajeka yemagwaro.

Nhau Huru Dzinorambidza Kutonga Muchisarudzo

Zvisarudzo zvinotevera zvinokosha zvinoratidzira kuti matare aishingaira akavaka sei chivako chacho zvishoma nezvishoma chokubatanidzwa kusingasaruri. Mhaka imwe neimwe yaida kuti vatongi vasarudze kana kodzero yakati yakanga iri inokosha kwazvo zvokuti inofanira kushanda kudare rehurumende riri rose, dare reguta, uye dhipatimendi ramapurisa munyika yacho.

Mapp v.O. (1961): Kutonga kweExclussion Appy kuS

Pamberi pa Mapp, dziviriro yeFold Amendment panzvero isina mufungo nepfari yakanga isingamanikidzwi mukurwisana navakuru vakuru vehurumende. Mutemo wokuparadza (inorambidza kushandisa ufakazi hunowanwa zvisiri pamutemo) inongoshandiswa bedzi mumatare ehurumende. Walf v. Colorado [1949]), Dare rakanga rarangarira kuti apo Penzi yechina yePramendejimendi yaishandisirwa kutaura, mutemo weRevotary wakanga usati uri rutivi runodikanwa.

Asi mu Mapp v.O., Dare rakashandura Wolf ndokuisa mutemo wokuparadzanisa munyika dzose. Mutongi Tom C. Clark airamba kuti pasina mushonga wokubvisa, maruramiro okunzvera kusina mufungo aizova “chimiro chamashoko.” Iyi chisarudzo chakanga chiri chitsigiriro nemhaka yokuti chakatonga zvikuru muenzaniso wemisi ichangobva kupfuura iyi ndokuita mupimo wetsika imwe yenyika, kuchimanikidzira nenzira inobudirira matare ehurumende kugamuchira mutemo wakawanda wakanga warambwa. Vatsoropo vakati Dare rakanga riri remabhiza. Vatsi vakataura kuti kwaizova kuri madikanwa kuita mepureji yeChina.

Gideon v. Wainwright (1963): Kodzero ku Zano

Mu Brady v. Brady (42), Dare rakanga ratonga kuti Sixth Amendment maruramiro ezano raishandiswa bedzi kudzimwe nyika mumigariro chaiyo (nyaya dzenhau kana kuti apo vakwirirwi vakanga vari vasina dziviriro zvikuru). Asi mu Gideon v. Wainwr, Dare rakatendeuka nokubvumirana kudzosa [[[FLT:]] BBBTS uye raidavira kuti kodzero yezano inokosha uye rinoshanda kudzose.

Ichi chisarudzo muenzaniso wakatanhamara wechiito chokutonga: Dare rakachinja ndangariro yaro, rakakudza ukuru hwevimbiso yebumbiro remitemo, uye rakagombedzera nyika kugovera magweta nokuda kwavakwirirwi vanopomerwa mhaka. Muuyo wakanga uri kuparadzwa kukuru kwegadziriro dzemitemo yehurumende. Chisarudzo chacho chakanga chisina kudzikamiswa murugwaro rutsva asi mukuita kuti pasaviswezve “rusununguko” rwunoda. Mutongi Muradziki, uyo akanga atsiurwa mu [[FLT: 0] BETS , akanyora [[FLT:] GRIide], achitaura kuti mufungo we “idzorongetemwaro. Munhu upi noupi... uyo ari murombo zvikuru kubhadharwa, haagoni kusimbiswa nokuda kwake nokuda kwezano rokururama.

[[FOL:0] Miranda v. Arizona (1966: Nyevero dzamapurisa uye Kuzviparadzanisa

Chikomborero cheFindre Amendment chinorwisana nokuzviparadzanisa chakabatanidzwa mu [[FLT: 0] Malloy v. Hogan (1964). Asi Miranda v. Arizona yakaenderera mberi nokuda kuti mapurisa azivise kodzero dzavo pamberi pokubvunzurudzwa. Dare rakagadzira mutemo weprocracy unonzi “Marandroma." [5])

McDonald v. Chicago (2010): Amendment yechipiri

Misi ichangobva kupfuura iyi zvikuru, Dare rakashandisa maruramiro eChipiri ePendment kuti achengete nokutakura zvombo kuti zvizivikanwe mu McDonald v. Chicago makore maviri pakuvamba. Mu [[FLT:]]Contution of Columbia v. Heller [[2008], Dare rakanga raziva kodzero yomunhu oga yokupfura muChitsikidzo chepiri, asi chisarudzo ichocho chakasunga bedzi hurumende yehurumende yehurumende yehurumende. [[FLT:]] MCD [[FLT], 5-4], voruzhinji vaidavira kuti kururarura rudyi uye vanoshandisa kutaura kupfurikidza neChiteshingaramisiro chaClaus. Chiratidzo chakapomera ruzhinji" chibvumikiso chenhau chakarevo chakatongeswa zvikuru kuti hachitsigiri mumaruramiro enhau itsva.

Nzira Iyo Kutonga Kunoparira Nayo Kusarudza Kutsinhirana

Chiito chorutongeso chinopfavisa kubatanidzwa kusingasaruri munzira dzinoverengeka. Chokutanga, chinobvumira Dare kududzira Gwendedzero reChibvumirano che 145 Claus kuti ribatanidze maruramiro akaderera asingadi kurongwa muBill of Rights (kwakadai sekodzero yokuva woga (] Griswrild v.Connecticut[FL:1], 1965) kana kuti kodzero yokuroora ([[FLT:]2]Obergefell v. Hodges, 2015]). Izvi hazvisi zviitiko zvakananga (zvinoshandisa mazatisi), asi zvinoratidzira kurava: kudzivirira kwakafara kudzivirira murairo.

Chechipiri, chiito chinoita kuti Dare rikwanise kukurira mitemo yenyika nemiitiro zvinorwisana nemipimo inochinja yorusununguko. Somuenzaniso, apo Dare raibatanidza chirambidzo cheRevelment cheRelective pachirango choutsinye nechisiri chenguva dzose mu Robinson v. California [1962], rakashandisa mupimo wehurumende kuzivisa kupiwa kwemhaka. Vatongi veActian vakanga vachidisa kutaura kuti zvirango zvoruwa (zvakadai sokupindwa muropa nechinorambidzwa) zvinoputsa “mipimo inochinja yerupfaviro iyo inoratidzira fambiro mberi kwenzanga inokura.”

Chechitatu, kuranga kunogona kukurumidzisa nhanho yokubatanidza. Munhau, Dare rakaita zvishoma nezvishoma: kwakatora kupfuudza kwakawanda kwekugadziridza kusere kwokutanga. Asi muNguva yeWarren Court (1953-1969), chimubato chakadzvinyirira nguva, kubatanidza nguva yeChina, yeshanu, yeChitanhatu, uye yeSendrey Amendments mukuputika kwezvisarudzo. Pasina vatongi vanorwira hurumende, muitiro wacho ungava uchiri usina kukwana, uye kodzero shomanene dzinopikirwa kurwisana nehurumende.

Kupokanidza Nokutsoropodza

Kutonga Kunotongwa Zvikuru

Vatsoropodzi vanotaura kuti chiito chokutonga chinosekesa udzori hwedemocracy. Apo matare anoisa mitemo yenyika yakafanana pahurumende, anodzora zvisarudzo zvakasarudzwa zvehurumende nerovedzo dzomunzvimbomo. Somuenzaniso, pashure Gideon[ uye [FLT:] [[FLT]]] Mapp [, dzinotaura kuti dzinofanira kupedza yakawanda pavadziviriri vavose nerovedzo yamapurisa ingave isina kutenderwa navo. Dzimwe nyanzvi dzapamutemo dzinotaura kuti kubatanidzwa kwakasarudzwa kunofanira kuva kwakaitwa kupfurikidza namaropafadzo kana kuti Immuclate Claus (iyo Dare rakasiiwa mu [FLD:]] Case-Sact [FFFF]5]) panzvimbo pezvirongwa nezvirongwa zvamabhiripo nemhaka yokuti vatongi vanotongedzesa.

Nyanzvi dzezvokuvamba dzakadai seMutongi Antonin Scalia aiwanzotsoropodza kubatanidzwa sekwapakarepo. Mukusabvumirana kwake mu McDonald, Scalia akanyora kuti Dare harifaniri “kuwana” maruramiro anokosha; panzvimbo pezvo, rinofanira kutarira kurugwaro nerevo yapakuvamba yeGaramende re1448. Iye akapikisa kuti mutauro unozarurwa weST Procession Clause yairwe kudzivirira procedro, kwete kubatira sechekero isina kunyorwa nokuda kwevatongi kuisa mirangariro yavo.

Kudzivirira Kutonga Mundima Yokusawirirana

Vatsigiri vanopindura kuti chiito chokutonga idziviriro iri madikanwa mukurwisana noudzvinyiriri hwemitemo kana kuti hwehurumende. Bill of Rights yakagadzirirwa kudzivirira kodzero dzevoruzhinji. Kana matare akanyanyoregeredzwa kuhurumende, rusununguko rukuru rungagona kuparadzwa. Seizvo Mutongi Robert Jackson akataura nenzira yakakurumbira, “Chibvumirano chekodzero hadzisi chibvumirano chokuzviuraya.” Vatongi veAclivist vanovimbisa kuti hakuna hurumende inogona kutorera munhu rusununguko rukuru runorondedzera kuva mugari weAmerica.

Kupfuurirazve, kuvhota kwave kuri budiriro inoshanda. Kwakaita musiyano worudzi nokuda kwerusununguko rwavagari vemo nepo zvichisiya nzvimbo yehurumende kuti iwedzerezve dziviriro. Somuenzaniso, masangano angapa dziviriro dzakasununguka dzakafara dzokutaura kupfuura zvinodikanwa neFirst Amendment, asi haagoni kuwira pasi pouriri ihwohwo. Zvisarudzo zvechiito zvakavhara kuputsa kwokuzvitutumanisa kwakakomba kwakadai sokutambudza kwamapurisa mu Brown v. Mississippi[[[FLD:]] [1936] (196) pamberi peFind Amend Refemendement yakaiswa pamutemo (8) nemipimo yomutemo pakuvamba uye nesimba.

Minonetsa Yazvino Uno Nemibvunzo Isingapedziswi

Nhasi, dzidziso inosarudza yakakwana zvikuru. Dare rapamusoro rabatanidza inenge gadziriro iri yose yeFokuqala, Yechina, Yeshanu, yechitanhatu, uye Republicesmendi. Chinosanozivikanwa chinobatanidza Pendement Yechipiri (zvino yakabatanidzwa kupfurikidza ]] McDonald[), Dare rechitatu (risingatongopinduri varwi (hwuna vasina kutongopinza asi vasingawanzopindwa), uye Grand Jury Clausleeste of the Findmeter (haiongeri, naizvozvo masangano angashandisa majasiro makuru kana kuti manzwi okutanga pachisarudzo). Dare harinawo kubatanidza maruramiro echigariro yorungari pakati pedare rehurumende. Contemplitemplication pamusoro pokutiveindetic Const Reconst Reconsoletion (Fversed Reconsoletion)

Zvisinei, uzivi hunokosha hwekutonga hunoramba huchipokanidzwa. Kugadzwa kwevatongi vanoda kudzorwa kungagona kumisa kumwe kuwedzera kana kuti kunyange kudzokorora mipimo iripo. Somuenzaniso, dzimwe ruramisiro dzetsika dzakada kutsanangurwazve kweChipiri Amendment kana kuti mutemo wokubvisa. Nguva yemberi yokushandisa zvisarudzo ingatsamira pakuda kweDare kushanda nechakawanda.

Uyezve, kumuka kwe “kuvimbisana kwezvoururango” senzira yakanatswa zvikuru kupfuura chiito chapakati: matare anofanira kudzivirira nokushingaira kodzero dzakajeka dzebumbiro remitemo pasina kubatanidzwa mukuita mitemo. Iyi gadziriro, inotsigirwa noMutongi Clarence Thomas mune dzimwe pfungwa, ingaparira kubatanidza murevo yapakuvamba yeMaropafadzo e 1448 eEndmentment kana kuti Immunites Claus. Kana akagamuchirwa, ingagona kuchinja kodzero dzinobatanidzwa uye kuti dzinoshandiswa sei.

Mugumo: Kukakavadzana Kusingaperi Pamwoyo Womutemo weAmerica

Chiito chorutongeso chave chiri simba guru mukuumba kubatanidzwa. Kuvambira Gitlow kusvikira ku [[FLT:] McDonald[, Dare Gurusa redare raita namamwe mabasa kuti ritambanudze kodzero dzehurumende kuvagari vemo, kazhinji kazhinji mukurwisana nezvido zvehurumende. Uyu muitiro wakakudza rusununguko rwomunhu, kubatanidza rudzi pasi pemipimo yavose yebumbiro-mitemo, uye dziviriro dzakadzika mitevedzero idzo vaAmerica zvino vanoshandisa nokuda kwokurerutswa.

Bva kusawirirana pakati pechiito chokutonga nechirambidzo chokutonga hakusati kuchizotongopedzwa zvizere. Kusarudza kunoda kuti vatongi vaite rutongeso runokosha pamusoro pei rusununguko rwuri madikanwa, iri basa iro rinobatanidza nenzira isingadzivisiki uzivi hwomunhu oga. Kana munhu achirangarira ikoku seshandiso yakaisvonaka yesimba redare kana kuti kubvutwa kwehurumende yehurumende inosarudzwa navanhu kunotsamira pamirangariro yomunhu yakafara yedudziro yebumbiro remitemo. Chisingarambiki ndechokuti pasina shingairo yorudzidziso, Bill of Rights ichava chinyorwa chomubatanidzwa mukuru, kuchisiya vaAmerica vazhinji vasina dziviriro inokosha mukurwisana nehurumende.

Nokuda kwokuravazve, nzvera project Oyez nokuda kwenhau, Cornell Information Institute yedzidziso, uye [[FLT] Melikan Bar Association yezvinoitika zvechiratidzo [ chibumbiro chemitengo.