Mavambo Enhau Ne Amendedzero Yegumi Negumi

Dzidziso yokudzivisa maruramiro ehurumende yakadzika mumutemo weEngland, umo Korona haingagoni kupiwa mhaka pasina kubvumira kwayo. United States yakabatanidza iyi nheyo pamwero wehurumende kupfurikidza neAleminth Amendment, yakasimbiswa muna 1795. Imendement inoti: "Simba romutemo reUnited States harisati richizorangarirwa kutambanudzira kusututi ipi neipi, mumutemo kana kuti kusabvumirana, yakatanga kana kuti yakatongwa nomumwe weUnited States naVagari vapavhuro veimwe Hurumende, kana kuti naVagari vemo veNyika ipi neipi yeMamwe Maruwa." Nokufamba kwenguva, Dare Rapamusoro rakadudzira Dare reAndmond Reconfmentation rakapfutadmentededed hourgnation kuti risarutsive nehurumende yaronge vagari vemo varo, kunze kwokunge kutookana kuti nyika kana kuti ibvumire kana kuti ibvumirano chibvumirano chiko cheHurumende.

Nhau huru dzinobatanidza Hans v. Louisiana (1890), iyo yairangarira kuti mugari wemo haagoni kukwirira mhaka yake amene mudare rehurumende mudare rePrefect yeDeminment, uye Alden v. Maine [1999]), iyo yakawedzera dziviriro yapamutemo kudare redare redare nokuda kwezvinotaurwa nehurumende. Dare rakarangarira kuti chimiro cheBumbiro reMitemo chinoparira uchangamire. Nokuda kwohufungwa hune udzame hweidzi nheyo dzemitemo, ona Confectal Information Institute [Foct:9]Converactivementation Institute]

Kudzivisa njodzi uku hakuna kutsarukana. Zvisinei, nyika dzinogona kukuvadza kudzivirira zvirwere nokubvuma kuwirirana, uye Congress ingadzivisa kuzvidzivirira pamutemo kwehurumende mumasimba akati okuchengetwa, akadai seChikamu 5 che 144th Amendment. Asi Dare Gurusa rakaisa ganhuriro dzakasimba pakukurirwa kwedare, zvikurukuru mumhaka dzinobatanidza kukuvadza kwapachivande. Kunzwisisa iyi mitengo yebumbiro remitemo kunokosha kunokosha mukuyera mhaka yehurumende yemapatopuresa.

Kubatana Kwakaitwa naChangamire Wehurumende Nhasi

Mubvunzo wakakomba mudare rehurumende mukurwisana namapurisa ehurumende mukurwisana kwazvino uno unobatanidza masangano ehurumende, kubatanidza mahofisi ehurumende, uye mamwe masimba enyika. Mubvunzo wakakomba mudare ripi neripi mukurwisana nebato rehurumende ndewokuti mukwirirwi i "simba rehurumende" rinofanira kudzivirirwa. Zvikamu zvinosanganisira kuti sangano racho rinotsigirwa sei nemari, uyo anogadza utungamiriri hwaro, uye kana mutongo ungabva kumari yehurumende.

Madhipatimendi mazhinjisa amapurisa ehurumende anoshanda muudzori hwakananga hwehurumende dzehurumende, achiaita zvombo zvehurumende nokuda kwezvinangwa zvaMadenderment eA111. Somuuyo, haagoni kukwidzwa mudare rehurumende pasina kubvumira kwehurumende. Zvimwe chetezvo ndezvechokwadi mumatare akawanda ehurumende, umo dziviriro dzehurumende dzezvisakiso zvomutemo dzinoratidzira kazhinji kazhinji dzidziso yomubatanidzwa.

Zvisinei, pane zvakasiana. Hurumende ingadzivisa kuzvidzivirira kupfurikidza nokuratidzirwa kwemitemo, zvakadai sechiito chetort. Mitengo yakawanda yakagadzira varapi vakaganhurirwa avo vanobvumira sutu nokuda kwezviito zvokuregeredza asi vanochengeta dziviriro yematsotsi akarongwa. Mukuwedzera, hurumende dzingabvuma kukodzera mumashoko akapoteredza, zvakadai semipimo yokugamuchira mari yehurumende (muchib., nokuda kwepurogiramu dzekotsekano yomumugwagwa). Varwi vanofanira kunzvera nokungwarira mitemo chaiyo inodzivisa kukuvadzwa kwematomubatanidzwa wenyika imwe neimwe isati yanyora.

Nyika Inoti Mabasa NevaWaiver

Federal Tort Accountings Act (FTCA) inogovera muenzaniso wezviito zvehurumende zvokutaura (TCS). Mupasi peFTCA, hurumende yehurumende inodzivisa kudzivirirwa kwesutu dzakavakirwa pamabasa anoregeredza kana kuti akaipa avashandi vanoita mukati moukoshi hwebasa ravo. Nenzira yakafanana, kutaura kwakafanana neCalifornia, New York, uye Texas kwakabvumira TC AS inobvumira kurwisana namasangano ehurumende, kubatanidza mapato emapurisa, nokuda kwemarudzi akati ezvinotaurwa.

Somuenzaniso, Code yeHurumende yeCalifornia .2 inodzivisa kukuvadzwa nokuda kwekuvadziko dzinoparirwa nechiito chomushandi kana kuti kusiiwa mukati menzvimbo yebasa kana munhu akavanzika achizorongeka. Zvisinei, muparadzi haarebesi kutaura kuti anobva mumabasa echisarudzo kana kuti kusazvibata kwemaune munyika dzakawanda. 2019 mushumo unoitwa ne American Association for Justice[ ano udzame mhindu yakafara muzvinodzivisa kudzivirirwa nehurumende, kwete kuti vamwe vanotaura kuti vanodzivisa kudzivirira pamutemo.

Kubatanidzwa Muhurumende Kwamapurisa Ehurumende: Migwagwa Yapamutemo Nezvinodzivisa

Vanyajambwa vomufambiro wakashata wamapurisa vanotarisana nenzvimbo yapamutemo yakaoma. Nzira huru mbiri dziripo: kutaura kwehurumende pasi pomutemo wehurumende, uye kutaura kwekodzero dzehurumende pasi pa 42 U.S.C. 1983. Imwe neimwe ine ganhuriro dzakatsaukana dzinoparirwa nokusazvidzora kwoutongi.

Zvinotaurwa Nemitemo Yehurumende Nezvirango

Hurumende inowanzobvumira zviito zvokuregeredza zvakadai sokukundikana kurovedza, kungwarira, kana kuti tsaona dzemotokari dzinoparirwa namapurisa.Asi nyika dzakawanda dzinobvisa matomu akarongwa akafanana nedenho, bhatiri, kusungwa kwenhema, uye kupiwa mhaka kwakaipa kubva kuvaparadziri vavo.Izvozvi zvinoreva kuti kunyange kana mukuru mukuru wemapurisa wehurumende akaita chakaipa namaune, kipadhi ringava risina dziviriro pakuva nemhaka, richisiya mukuru mukuru mukuru wacho ari mutendi ane mhaka (asi kazhinji kazhinji anodzivirirwa nemitemo inodzivisa kubatwa nehosha kana kuti kudzivirirwa).

Pavanokwidza nyaya pasi peTCA, vanyajambwa vanofanira kuwirirana nezvinodikanwa zvakasimba, mitemo mipfupi yeganhuriro (inowanzova mwedzi mitanhatu kusvikira kugore rimwe), uye makepisi pakuvadziko. Somuenzaniso, Florida] mutemo weraundi [ musengwa we $200,000 pamunhu ne $200,000 pachinoitika chimwe. Izvi zvipingamupinyi zvemifungo zvinoderedza zvikuru bviro dzokunayamura.

Chikamu 1983 uye Matotsi Ebumbiro remitemo

Kunzvenga kudzivirirwa nehurumende, vapurisa vazhinji vanotendeukira ku42 U.S.C. . 1983, iyo inobvumira suturo mukurwisana nehurumende nevakuru vakuru vomunzvimbomo vanoputsa maruramiro ebumbiro remitemo rehurumende. Zvisinei, vanotaura kuti havarangarirwi vamene "vanhu" pasi pa 2016 uye havadzivirirwi pasakafanira. Mhinganidzo imwe cheteyo yePendezment yechi11 inoshanda: kitondi ramapurisa ehurumende harigoni kupiwa mudare rehurumende, kutoti hurumende ibvumire.

Zvakadiniko nemukwanirirwo womukuru mukuru mumwe nomumwe? Mudzidziso yokudzivirirwa kwavakakwaniriswa, vakuru vakuru vanodzivirirwa pamhosva kutoti vakaputsa mutemo wakajeka. Uku kuzvidzivirira kazhinji kazhinji kunokurira kunyange apo kusazvibata kwacho kunenge kwakakomba.

Mazano anobatanidza kukwidza matarenda omunzvimbomo (zvakadai sedhipatimendi ramapurisa eguta) pasi pedzidziso , asi iyo inoshanda bedzi kuhurumende dzomunzvimbomo, kwete masangano ehurumende. Ona Monell v. Department of Social Services [1978]). Nokuda kwezvibvumikiso zvehurumende, 063 zviito zvinorwisana navashandi kana kuti vagadziri vemitezo yehurumende zvingagovera nzira kana dziviriro yehurumende yezvikumbiro zvakadaro.

Misiyano Yenhau yeHurumende Nomutemo Wenhau

Mutemo wenhau unoratidzira basa rakamanikana rokudzivisa kubatwa nehosha. Mu [Foct] Kencony v. Graham (1985), Dare Rapamusoro rakaramba kuti sutu inorwisana nomukuru mukuru wehurumende musimba rake isutu inopesana nehurumende uye inorambidzwa nedare rePrevenment. Mukupesana, sututi dzinorwisana navakuru vakuru vebasa musimba ravo havadziwirwi, asi dzinoshanda. matare ehurumende akaparadzanisa kana mapurisa ehurumende ari masero emitemo yehurumende. Somuenzaniso, Dare repamusorosoro reTexas rakabatwa mu [FLT] .[FLT] V.[FLT] [FLT] [FOL: 9]] [195]

Chinjo huru yakaitika muColorado pashure pokuramba 2020, apo mutezo wehurumende wapfuura SB21-169, iyo yakaisa basa rechisarudzo uye mutoro wakakudzwa nokuda kwesimba rakanyanyisa kupfurikidza nokuchengetwa kwomutemo. Kubvira muna 2023, kudzivirira kwomubatanidzwa weColorado zvino kunofukidza kutaura kwokudenha, bhatiri, uye kuiswa mutorongo kwenhema navakuru vakuru vorugare. National Conference of Legislatures

Zvinhu Zvinoita Kuti Pave Nokuvimbika

Zvinhu zvinotambudza zvinoverengeka zvinotapura kana dhipatimendi remapurisa ehurumende richigona kupiwa mhaka muhurumende:

  • [[FLT: 0] Muvhimi wokudzivisa hosha: Hurumende yapfuura chiito chechiito chechinokwikwidza icho chinobatanidza zvakananga kuchengetwa kwomutemo? Kutetepa kwomuparadzi ndicho chinhu chimwe chinokosha zvikurusa.
  • Rudzi rwomufambiro usina kunaka: kutaura kweNegligence (mutoo, tsaona dzemotokari) sezvingabvira zvikuru kuchapukunyuka kupfuura kutaura kwemaune tort mumashoko kusingabatanidzi kwapashure.
  • Kuwanda kwebasa: Mupurisa akanga achiita mukati memibato here? Kusazvibata kwapachivande kana kuti zviito izvo zviri pachena zviri kunze kwebasa kazhinji kazhinji zvinokundikana kunze kweanoramba kutapurwa nehosha.
  • Kuteererwa kwetsika: Ko mutengi wadhiropu waizivisa zvamaidi mumiganhu yenguva yemitemo here? Hurumende TC sezvinoda ziviso mukati mamazuva 90, uye kundikano yakaguma nokudzingwa.
  • Basa rekutsiva: Varapi vazhinji vanodzivisa dziviriro nokuda kwe "zviito zvokubvisa." Matare kazhinji kazhinji anoronga zvisarudzo zvamapurisa mukati memigariro yakakwirira yokudzvinyirira sechisarudzo, kudzivirira kadhi ramabhomba.
  • Mitemo yokuwedzera: Kana hurumende ikaita kuti vakuru vakuru vasarudze mhaka yomunhu oga, izvo zvisingadzivisi kudzivirirwa kwedhipatimendi, asi zvinotapura mano anoshanda okuunganidza zvirango.

Zvinhu izvi zvinokamuraniswa zvikuru. Gweta ranyajambwa rinofanira kunzvera mitemo yehurumende yakananga nomutemo wenhau mudzoro pamberi pesutu. 2021 fundo yakaitwa ne HARVARD Civil Rights-Civil Liberies Law Review[ rakawana kuti muruwa 28, dziviriro yehurumende inogovera ganhuriro yokutaura namaune mukurwisana namapurisa ehurumende, nepo nyika 9 bedzi dzine varapi vanopfuura varapi vakafara mutsika.

Zvinetso Zvokuita Kuti Mapurisa Azvidavirire Nokuva Akakurumbira Muhurumende

Changamire anogadzira matanda anokosha nokuda kwavanyajambwa vanotsvaka ruramisiro. Kunyange apo hurumende ine dziviriro inodzivisa zvirwere, mhinganidzo dzinoshanda dzinosara. Kukuvadzwa kwekepisi kunoganhurira kunaya, kunyange nokuda kwekuvadziko dzine ngwavaira. Somuenzaniso, ganhuriro dzeGeorgia dzekuparadza dzinokuvadza $3 000 000 pachinoitika (O.C.G.A. . 36-92-9), asi kana kutaura kwacho kuchibva ku "ros" kunoparirwa nezviito zvomumanikidzi womutemo kana kuti kubviswa. Apo kepu dzesurukidzo dzinoderera, magweta dzingasawana magweta okuita zvinhu nenzira inodikanwa.

Chimwe chinetso ndechokubvumikisa kuregeredza mumhaka dzekusazvibata kwamapurisa. Hurumende dzinowanzochengeta dziviriro ye "basa rokubvisa," kureva kuti zvisarudzo zvevakuru vakuru zvinoparadzana zvinodzivisa kutaura kwokusaitira hanya kunyange kana kuchiguma nekuvadziko. Matare anopa rusununguko rwakafara kuchisarudzo chavakuru vakuru, kuchikuita kuve kusingabviri kukurira pasina ufakazi hwomufambiro unonyadzisa kana kuti kupunzwa kwomuitiro wakajeka.

Kukwanisa kudzivirira zvirwere kunodzivirira zvirwere kunodzivirira mapurisa pakodzero dzevanhu, asi kudzivirira zvirwere kunoitwa nehurumende kunodzivirira dhipatimendi pazvinhu zvinonzi nehurumende.

Brennan Center for Justice yakabvumikisa kuti dziviriro yesimba rinosarudzwa navose zvikurukuru inoremedza sei nzanga dzinosvika paruvara rwakaderera, idzo dzinowana masimba masimba amapurisa nenzira isingaenzaniswi asi dzine kuganhurirwa kwezviwanikwa zvapamutemo zvokushandisa mitemo yakaoma. Vatsigiri venzvimbo yechinjo dzemitemo kuvimbisa mhaka dzevagari vemo segadziriro yokuzvidavirira.

Kuedza Kuchinja Zvinhu Nezviito

Mukupindura kudikanwa kunowedzera kwavanhu nokuda kwamapurisa, nyika dzinoverengeka dzakaita kana kuti dzakarangarira chinjo kuderedza dziviriro dzapamutemo dzemapato ehurumende emapurisa.

  • Zvinoparadza: Uniteds dzakadai seColorado, Washington, uye New Mexico zvakapa mutemo unoratidza zvakananga kudzivirirwa kwakaipa nokuda kwezvinotaurwa zvesimba rakanyanyisa, denho, uye kusungwa kwenhema navakuru vakuru vanotarisira mutemo.
  • [[FLT: 0] kuratidzira kuvadziko yemiitiro yamapurisa yomufambiro wakashata: California SB 2 (2021) yakabvisa chikepisi chamadhora 100 000 pacharambwa nokuda kwokutaura kworugare mukurwisana navakuru vakuru nokuda kwokupunzwa kwekodzero dzavagari vemo, kuchibvumira kunaya kusina kuganhurirwa nokuda kwendyiko dzenguva yemberi dzekurapa nokurwadziwa nokutambura.
  • [ inoratidzira utarisiri hwokuzvimirira nemitoo yokubhadhara:[[FL: 1] Dzimwe nyika dzakatanga mabhodhi ehwirudzuro ehurumende ane simba duku uye mano okurumbidza chirango, kunyange zvazvo iyi miviri isati ichiwanzova nechiremera chokukuvadza.
  • Zvibvumirano zvinobatanidza nomutoo wakarovedzeka kutevedzerwa kwemitemo: Mutengi anokura anobatanidza mutengi wechaunga chapamutemo ku kugamuchira kwebato ramapurisa miitiro yakanakisisa, yakadai semakamera omuviri nerovedzo yokubvisa.

Pamwero wehurumende, Congress yakarangarira zvikwereti kudziviriro yapamutemo yehurumende inodzorwa nehurumende nokuda kwa1993 kutaura kuti kunoparirwa nomufambiro wakashata wamapurisa, asi kuganhurirwa kwebumbiro remitemo kunoita kuti mutemo wakadaro uve wakaoma kupfuvura mumuenzaniso weDare Gurusa razvino. George Floyd Justice muPolicing Act, kubviswazve muna 2023, kwaizoparira mari yehurumende inodzivisa kusazvibata kwamapurisa nokuda kwezvirevo zvakati kuti zvamapurisa, asi haisati yazova mutemo.

Dare reHurumende riri kuitawo basa. Mamwe matare makurusa eWashington akadudzirazve mabumbiro avo emitemo kuwana kuti kudzivirira dziviriro kwehurumende hakupingi namaune kutaura kurwisana namapurisa. Mu Doe v. State [2020], Dare guru reWashington rakataura kuti kushata kwapamhene kwehurumende pasi peTort Epices Act kunofukidza kutaura kwokudenha nebhatiriti kupfurikidza nokudzikamisa mutemo, kuramba kutaura kwokuti vakuru vakuru vakuru vezviito mabasa okutonga ibasa rapamutemo. Zvisarungadzo zvakadaro zvinogona kuwedzera kuva nemhaka kunyange pasina chiito chemitemo.

mhedziso

Kuzvidzora kwehurumende kunoramba kuri mhinganidzo inotyisa kukuvadziko yehurumende yebato yebato remapurisa ehurumende. Nepo Kudzivirira kwechi115 kwechiNati nebumbiro remitemo zvichidzivirira masangano ehurumende kubva kumatare akawanda, kunze kuripo kupfurikidza nezviito zvetort, zvirango zvakaganhurirwa, uye chinjo dzakatarwa. Kukwanisa kuita kuti mapurisa ehurumende azvidavirire kunotsamira pamitemo yakananga yehurumende, rudzi rwetsika, uye nhano dzetsika dzinoitwa nemupurisa.

Sezvo kungwarira vanhu kunowedzera uye vatevedzeri vehurumende vanopindura, kombamiro iri kukuganhurira dziviriro yapamutemo muzvinoitika zvokushandisa simba nomufambiro wakashata. Zvisinei, fambiro mberi haina kufanira, uye nyika dzakawanda dzichiri kugovera dziviriro inoswedera pedyo nedzisingakuvadzi nokuda kwezvitakuri zvemaune. Kuvanyajambwa, kunzwisisa nzvimbo yapamutemo inhano yokutanga kukutsvaka ruramisiro. Vatakurisi navatsigiri vanopfuurira kusunda nokuda kwechinjo dzinodzikamisa fariro yehurumende muuchangamire nechinodikanwa chikuru chokuzvidavirira nechekuzvidzosera.

Nokuda kwokuraviwazve pamusoro pekubatanidzwa kwemhosva yezvigaro zvehurumende nemapurisa, Stanford Law School pamusoro pokuzvidavirira kwamapurisa inopa kunzvera kwovudziro kwenhau dzemitemo nebumbiro remitemo. Kuwedzera, kubviswa kwenhungamiro yeRuramisiro [[FLT:] paukuru hwesimba rehurumende pasi pePremendment yeFilenth] kunopa murangariro wehurumende.