Kodzero yokudzivirirwa zvakaenzana pasi pomutemo inomira seimwe yenheyo dzine simba zvikurusa nedzinopokanidzwa mumutemo wemitemo yeAmerica. Yakapinzwa muIneth Amendment, iyi vimbiso inoda kuti vanhu vari munzvimbo dzakafanana vabatwe zvakafanana navatambi vehurumende, vasipo ruramiso yakasimba yakakwana nokuda kwokubatwa kwakasiana. Mumakore 150 apfuura, Dare Rapamusoro reU. Dare repamusorosoro reU.S. rakadudzira Dare reMatamente Protection Clauslease munzira idzo dzose dziri mbiri kutsigira rusaruro uye kuchinja kwenzanga. Kunzwisisa mienzaniso inokosha yemitemo yakaumba iyi iko kutsanangura kuti mutemo weAmerica unotsanangura sei kururama, rusununguko, uye ruramisiro.

Nzvero yedziviriro yakaenzana nhasi inotsamira pagadziriro yakatevedzana yenzvero yenziyo nepakati, uye hwaro hune mufungo (imwe neimwe inoshandiswa zvichitsamira parudzi rwenhau (dzinza, munhurume, kana kuti mirau yezvemari). Iyi mipimo haina kuumbwa zvizere; yakavakwa nemhaka yenhau, kazhinji kazhinji muhondo dzakaoma dzinoratidzira nzvimbo yetsika nedzezvamatongerwe enyika. Nyaya ino inonzvera zvinoitika zvehwaro izvo zvakatangwa, zvakakudzwa, uye zvakanatsiridza maruramiro kuti zvivake, nepo zvichinzverawo denho dzapanguva inopfuvura dzinopfuurira kuedza kusvika kwazvo.

Mutezo Wechigumi Negumi Negumi Nokutangwa Kwedzidziso Yokudzivirira Yakaenzana

Filimate Protection Claus, yakagamuchirwa muna 1868 sorutivi rweKineth Amendment, inogovera, kuti: “Hapana Hurumende icharamba kumunhu upi noupi ari mukati mesimba rayo dziviriro yakaenzana yemitemo.” Pamavambo yakagadzirirwa kudzivirira kodzero dzavatema vachangobva kusunungurwa muAfrica, chitsama chakaderera nokuda kwezana ramakore rechigumi namapfumbamwe. Kududzirwa kwakatetepa kweDare rePromension reNguva yenjikano ye(5) (5) nerevomhosve [FLT]] Case-Indlu yeChiviti (1873] uye [FLT] United States. Crushhank[FF:3] [18] [6] simba rehurumende rokusariranisa.]

Musi Wacho Wokugadziridza

Demendimendi ye14th Amendment yakanga iri musimboti wepurogiramu yeRepublican Reconstructon. Yaiitirwa kuti iparadze mukurumbira wakaipa Dred Scott v. Sandford chisarudzo [1857] uye kushandura mutemo weChirevori chekodzero dzechivonic Act ya1866, icho chaivimbisa kodzero dzakaenzana nekodzero dzakaenzana kuvanhu vose vakaberekwa muUnited States. Vamiriri, vaitungamirirwa naMumiririri John Bingham naShenator Jacob Howard, vaitsvaka kuisa mupimo worudzi wouenzani wokuenzana paPrejistal Crivil Gover Union umo inotaura kodzero dzeHondo yeHondo. Asi Dare Gurusaresa redare rakakanganisa nokukurumidza chipikirwa chokuti kusarura kwaromwaratiko ndokusa rusa maruramiro evoruzhinji uye kodzero huru zvikuru pasi povhoose.

“ Hapana Hurumende icha... kuramba kumunhu upi noupi ari mukati mesimba rayo dziviriro yakaenzana yemitemo.” — U.S. amstend. XIV., NZA 1.

Kwamakumi amakore, Aumeal Protection Claus yaikumbirwa zvikurukuru namasangano anotaura kuti mitemo yehurumende yaianyima kubata kwakaenzana(a) kwedonzo rapakuvamba rechikamu chacho. Kwakanga kusati kuri kutozosvikira pakati pezana ramakore rechina zana ramakore rechina rechimakumi maviri apo Dare rakavamba kufemera upenyu muchikamu chacho sechishandiso cheruramisiro yedzinza, uye kubva ipapo rakatambanudzira dziviriro dzaro kumamwe mapoka akaganhurirwa mune zvamatongerw amakore.

Kutanga Kwemipimo Yokunzvera Yazvino Uno

Mitemo yedziviriro yazvino uno yakaenzana yakarongwa pamwero yehwirudzuro. Nzvero yakakomba, mupimo unoraira zvikurusa, inoshanda kumativi akavakirwa padzinza, mavambo orudzi, uye shambidziko; mitemo yakadaro inotsigirwa bedzi kana ichibatira fariro inogombedzera yehurumende uye ichisanogadziridzwa. Kunzvera kunoshanda kumapoka akavakirwa pachimiro chechirume nechorusarura, kuchida donzo rinokosha rehurumende neukama hwakakura kudonzo iroro. Rationalalmal, inohwirudzura, inoshandiswa kuzvimwe zvikamu zvose zvemitemo, kunze kwokunge isina ukama hune wirirano ine mufungo kufariro yapamutemo. Iyi gadziriro yakabuda munhevedzano yezvinoitika izvo zvakanatsa dzidziso kupfurikidza nedonzo iroro muzana ramakore rechimakumi maviri.

Zviratidzo Zvepasi Zvinodzivisa Kudzivirirwa Kwakaenzana

Mumwe nomumwe akataura mubvunzo unokosha pamusoro pokuti ndiani ari munhu, kuti kururamisira kunoda chii, uye kuti nyika ingaratidza sei kusiyana kwevanhu.

Ferguson (1896): “Mapoka Asi Akaenzana *

Mu Plesty v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. (1896), Dare Gurusa rakatsigira mutemo weLouisiana unoda kuganhurirwa kwedzinza mumotokari dzenjanji. Homer Plessy, murume wechizvarwa chimwe na680 muAfrica, akadenha mutemo sechiputsiko chedziviriro yaMozati, asi Dare rakaramba kutaura kwake nevoruzhinji. Mutongi Henry Brown akarangarira kuti Brown haana kureva uduku hwedzinza ripi neripi, nguva refu kwazvo sezvo zvivako zvakanga zvakaenzana. Chisarungamireno chapamutemo “chienzana hachingova chakaenzana” uye chakagovera chifukidzwa chapamutemo nokuda kwemitemo yeSouth kwemakumi matanhatu. John Marshall anobvumikisa kuva murwiso, zvisinei, Mutongi wemitemo wekaresanwa wenhau yeRoma, kunyange zvazvo zvichinziripo kubvumira dare renguva dzose.

Plassity inomira somuenzaniso wenyevero yokuti Kudzivirira Claus Kwakaenzana kunogona kumoshaniswa sei kuti kupfuudzira kusaenzana. Kuramba kweDare kutarira kupfuura chiyero chetsika chapamutemo (ichiratidzira chikanganiso chaicho chenyika chapavhu nehwusina kupiwa zvinhu zvakapfuudzwa (‘kufumura ganhuriro dzechikamu chinodikanwa bedzi chomugariro wokusatora rutivi pachiso chayo. Chisarumbiso chacho chakanga chisina kudzorwa zvizere kusvikira Brown v. Board of Education [[FLD:3]]] [1954]).

Brown v. Board of Education (1954): Rufu rwe “Speciety asi Runoenzana”

Brown v. Dare reDzidzo reTopeka, 347 U.S. 483 (54), sezvinobvira chisarudzo chinokosha zvikurusa cheDare Gurusa rezana ramakumi maviri. Mumurangariro mumwe wakanyorwa naChiremera che Justice Earl Warren, Dare rakarangarira kuti dzinza renyika rakaputsa dziviriro yakaenzana yaClaus. Dare rakawana kuti “zvivako zvedzidzo hazvina kuenzeka, zvinoramba [[FLT:] PyP . Chisarudzo chacho chakanyora paufakazi hwendangariro nedzero hwendangariro.[FLT]

“ Zvivako zvedzidzo hazvina kuenzana.” — Mutongi Mukuru Earl Warren, [[FLT: 0] Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

rown haina kugumisa nokukurumidza kuganhura; yaida imwezve rondedzero (zvakadai se rown II [ uye ] Copern v.Aaron) uye kupindira kwehurumende kumanikidza deseconiation. Chisarudzo chacho chakachinja zvikuru revo yedziviriro yakaenzana kupfurikidza nokuomerera kuti kuva nohuenzana mumigumisiro chaiyoiyo nerevomunzanga, kwete chiso chezvakaro. BB]wo akaisawo nheyo nokuda kwekodzero dzavagari vemo, kudenha mamiriro ose oupenyu.

Rudo Virginia (1967): Kubvisa Mipinyi Yedzinza Kuwana Romuchato

Mu Loveng v. Virginia, 388 U.S. (1967), Dare Rapamusoro rakashatisa mutemo waVirginia wokudzivisa kuroora kwemarudzi akasiyana - siyana. Dare rakashandisa kunzvera kwakakomba rudzi rwedanho resvomhondi retsika ndokuwana kuti mutemo hauna donzo rapamutemo kunze kwokuchengeta ukuru huchena. Chiratidzo chikuru chaMatare Warren, zvakare kunyora nokuda kweDare, rakarangarira kuti “rusununguko rwokuroora, kana kuti kusaroora, munhu worumwe rudzi anogara nomunhu uye haagoni kudzorwa neHurumende. [ Rivrovhatiro. [[FLT]

Reed Reed (1971): Kuenzana kwechikwata nemhondi kunofanira kutevedza midzi

Nokuda kwenhau zhinjisa dzeAmerica, Dare Rapamusoro rakaramba kushandisa kunzvera kwakawedzerwa kumativi echikadzi, kazhinji kazhinji kunonongedzera kumabasa evatano yamagamuchidzanwa. Ikoko kwakachinja mu Red v. Reed, 404] U.S. 71191, apo Dare rakaputsa mutemo weIdaho waipa varume chinodikanwa chapachivande savatongi venyika. Kunyange zvazvo murangariro wacho usina kujekesa muedzo wapamutemo, yakanga iri nguva yokutanga Dare radzikira mutemo pahwaro hwevatano pasi peClauslaus. Makore maviri gare gare gare gare gare, [FLT:] Fronsonson. [FFT3] [3] [9]

United States kana kuti Virginia (1996): Kudzivirirwa Kwakaenzana uye Kubatanidzwa Mudzidzo

Mu United States v. Virginia, 518 U.S. 51596), Dare Rapamusoro rakataura kupfurikidza nokubvuma muitiro wetsika wapakati weVirginia Military Institute (VMI). Hurumende yakataura kuti dzidzo imwe chete yakabvumirwa, asi Dare, mumurangariro waJastice Ruth Bader Ginsburg, rakarangarira kuti muitiro unoputswa neFout - Ex - Modern Clause. Richinodudza mupimo wapakati, Dare rakawana kuti Virginia yakakundikana kugovera “ruratidzo runonyengetedzera rwokubvisa vakadzi.. Chisarudzo chakamanikidzirwa kuti chibvume nokusimbisa vakadzi kuti mamiriro ezvinhu ashairwe pamutemo uye kuti ashande zvinangwa zvakaenzana nemitemo yeGsburg.

Washington v. Davis (1976): Chirayiro Chinobvumirwa Kugara Panyika

Hadzisi nhevedzano dzose dzinoparira miuyo yechamutevedzeri. Mu Shashton v. Davis, 426 U.S.29 Dare Gurusa rakataura kuti mutemo kana kuti mutemo unodenhwa pasi peSangano rePurectial Classiale unofanira kuratidzwa kuva nedanho redigrim .[FLT]] [8] .Mhosvero yakanyorwa nokuda kwavakuru vakuru vemuAfrica uyo maganishoni akakundikana pamwero mukuru kupfuura dziviriro yavachena. Dare rakaramba rondedzero yokuparadza rondedzero yapa pamutemo, chengeta izvo zvinotendwa pasi pechibvumirano cheTitmon. [4]

Grutter v. Bollinger (2003): Chiito Chinosimbisa uye Dziviriro Yakaenzana

Mubvunzo wokuti kana zviito zvinobvuma zvinopesana nePuremmeter Claus Court yakasvika pa Gridge v. Bollinger, 539 U.S. 306 (2003). Dare rakatsigira Yunivhesiti yeMigan Law Gavition, iyo yakarangarira rudzi sechinhu chimwe pakati pavazhinji kuti vasvike boka ravadzidzi rakasiana. Kunyora nokuda kwevoruzhinji, Mutongi Sandra Day O’Connor akashandisa kunzvera kwakakomba asi akagumisa kuti fariro yechikoro chomutemo mumhindudzodzo yakanga ichigombedzera uye kuti purogiramu yacho yakanga yakagadziriswa zvishoma nemhaka yokuti yakanga yakapfava, yakaitwa yakaitwa yakaenzana, uye haina kurongwa kwedzinza. Chisaruso chikagona kusimbisa kuti matanho evoruzhinji, asi “Isu tamisawo: Makore 25 zvino tinotarisira kuti kupfurikidza nokushandisa dzinza, hakuzodaidzwazve. [FF]

Kuwedzera Kukosha Kwedziviriro Yakaenzana: Vatano, Kubatanidzwa Muvatano, uye Kupfuura

Kubvira kuma1970 zvichienda mberi, kupiwa dziviriro kwakaenzana kwakanangidzirwa nenzira inowedzera pamapoka asiri edzinza.

Rusaruro Pashure paCraig briden

Mu Craig v. Boren[FL:1], 429 U.S. (1976), Dare rakaputsa mutemo weOklahoma uyo wakagadza mazera okunwa akasiyana - siyana nokuda kwavarume navakadzi (1 nokuda kwavakadzi]. Murangariro wezvizhinji wakatangwa kuongororwa kwapakati nokuda kwemapoka echirume: mutemo unofanira kubatira “zvinangwa zvehurumende” uye kuva“ une chokuita nokubudirira kwezvinangwa izvozvo." Uyu mupimo wakashandiswa muzvinoitika zvinovambira [[FLT:] United States v.[FLT] [FG3] [196] [196] kunzira pamutemo.[FLT]

LGBTQ+ Kodzero Nedziviriro Zvakaenzana

Kushandiswa kweDare Rapamusorosa kwedziviriro yakaenzana kumisi yevatano ku Romer v. Evans (1996], iyo yakarova mitemo yeColorado yedzongoration inodzivisa vatano yengochani neyomutevedzani. Kunyange zvazvo Dare rakashandisa dziviriro inowirirana, yakawana kuti kugadziriswa kusina donzo ripi neripi rapamutemo kupfuura animus. Mu LIVEnce v. Texas [2003], Dare rakava nemitemo inoregwa pasi peChirongwa chaClaus Ecolaus, asi dziviriro yakaenzana iko kudzivirirawose. Nguva yakauya mu [vFLT:]berged. Hogrome.[2010]

Nguva pfupi yapfuura, Bostock v. Clayton County [20]), Dare rakadudzira musoro VII weChibvumirano cheChibvumirano cheChiviko chekodzero dzavanhu kuti ridzivise rusaruro rwakavakirwa pachimiro chevatano kana kuti kuzivikanwa kwevarume; nepo mhaka iyoyo yakanga iri yomutemo, kurangarira kwakasimbisa nheyo yokuti kurongwa kwakavakirwa pachiratidzo chevatano nechiratidzo chemunhukadzi kunofungidzirwa uye kunoda ruramiso yakasimba. Zvinetso zvakaenzana zvinopfuurira munharaunda dzakadai sokuwana zvisaririra, kutora rutivi rwemitambo, uye pokugara vanhu vose.

Kodzero Dzisina Kukodzera: ADA uye Kupfuura

Matare akarangarira kazhinji kazhinji kuti marusarudzo ehurema anodzorwa bedzi nehwaro hunowirirana, kwete nzvero yakawedzerwa. Mu Doroba reCleburne Living Center v. Cleburne Living Center (1985), Dare Gurusa reSamende rakaputsa mutemo waida mvumo chaiyo yemvumo nokuda kweboka ravanhu vane urema hwendangariro (asi Dare rakaita saizvozvo pasi pehwaro hunonzwisisika, kuwana kuti mutemo wakanga wakavakirwa pafungidziro isina mufungo. Ikoku kwakaratidzira kuti kunyange pasina kusanonzvera kwakawedzera, Mutevedzero weSabata Clauslaus anogona kugovera mushonga apo rusaruro runobva kana kuti magariro asina kururama. Hurumende dzinowedzerazve dziviriro dzakakwirira kupfurikidza nemitemo yeUchenjeri (1990), idzo dzinoratidzira misero yehurumende, uye dzimba dzavose. [5] saC.[5]

Zvinetso Zvenguva Ino uye Mibvunzo Isingapedzisi

Pasinei zvapo neboka guru romutemo wedziviriro wakaenzana, nhau dzakawanda dzinoramba dzichikakavadzana. Chisarudzo cheDare Gurusa mu Chinotangira Fair Adgistrations v. Harvard nenzira inobudirira yakagumisa nhangemutange yokubvuma basa redzidzo yakakwirira, kubata kuti mapurogiramu akadaro anoputsa dziviriro yeModel Claus. Chisarudzo ichocho chinoratidzira kudzokera kuimwe dziviriro yakarongwa, ruvarabé Bosbe yedziviriro yakaenzana, yakafanana nokurangarira kwakaitwa neMutongi Thomas muKoctrice. Panguva ino, matare maduku anorwisana nemibvunzo yetsika dzakakwirira, shatiko, shambidziko, uye ruramisiro yemhoteredzo inomutsa nhau dzechionomero yedamariro, kubvisa vhiringi, kudzorwa kwesangano redare rokuzvidavirira.

Kusaenzana Kwegadziriro Nedzidziso Yokudzivirira Yakaenzana

Chimwe chenhamo hurusa mumutemo wedziviriro ndirwo rusano rwechinodikanwa chimwe chedonzo chakatangwa mu Shashington v. Davis uye uchokwadi hwedzinza ravanhu. Kusaenzana kukuru mudzidzo, utano, uye ruramisiro yeutsotsi ichibereko chetsarudzo yenhau isingagoni kurondwa kuchiito chimwe chedonzo rehurumende. Vatsoropodzi vanotaura kuti mupimo wedonzo i “mabumbiro emitemo akafa nokuda kwokutaura nokusaenzana kwazvino uno. Dzimwe nyanzvi navatsigiriri vanoda kuti kushandiswa kukuru zvikuru kweClauslee dziviriro yeSaye kuti vade masangano avapo, asi Dare razvino uno ringaratidza chishuvo chishuvo chiduku nokuda kwewero.

Kusawirirana uye Zvikonzero Zvizhinji Zvokusarura

Vanhu vanowana rusaruro pahwaro hwevanopfuura chinhu chimwe chakadzivirirwa (somuenzaniso, dzinza nebonde, kana kuti urema nechimiro chevatano) kazhinji kazhinji vanowira mumhesano dzegadziriro dzapamutemo dziripo. Dare Gurusa harina kutsanangura zvakajeka kuti kunzvera kwakaenzana kunofanira kuparira sei kutaura kwokupamhidzanisa. Mamwe matare akaderera akaziva kuti rusaruro paboka duku (muchib., vakadzi veAfrica) ikuvadziko yakaparadzana uye inozivikanwa, asi mutemo unoramba usingadzorwi. Sezvo masangano enzanga anosimbisa nenzira inowedzera zviitiko zvokupindira, matare achamanikidzwa kuti akudziridze zvishandiso zvinogadzirirwa nokuda kwokuongorora zvikamu zvinobatanidzwa.

Kutarira Mberi: Nguva Yemberi Yedziviriro Yakaenzana

Kodzero yedziviriro yakaenzana haisati iri yakarebesa. Chizvarwa chimwe nechimwe chine banza(ne mutoro) rokududzira revo yacho muchiedza chemigariro yenzanga inobuda nenzwisiso dzetsika. Mienzaniso inokurukurwa munyaya ino inozivisa donzo kukubatanidza kukuru zvikuru, asiwo mutoo wokudzokerazve nokudzivisa. Chipikirwa cheKinneth Amendment chinoramba chiri bhizimisi risina kupedzwa.

Kupfuurira kujekeswa pamusoro pamaruramiro okuvhota, kudzorwa, kuzvidavirira kwamapurisa, uye maruramiro okuburitsa utachiona kuchapfuurira kuedza miganhu yedzidziso inodzivirira yakaenzana. Zvinhu zvokunze — zvakadai sechinjo mukuvakwa kweDare Gurusa, kubatanidzwa kwamasangano ekodzero dzavagari vemo, uye murangariro wavose (*) uchaumba kana chitsama chine simba zvikuru nokuda kwokuenzana kana kuti kudzokera mumiganhu. Chipi kana chipi kana chipi icho nguva yemberi inoita, mhaka dzakanzverwa pano dzichigovera mashoko enhau nenheyo dzehwaro dzehwaro dzenharo dzinouya.