Nhaka Isingaperi yeTendedzero Yechitanhatu: Kutarisana Nayo Mumazana Amakore

Kodzero yokunangana navapomeri vako haisi chinhu chazvino uno; ibwe rekona reAnglo - America kuti rinotangira Sixtement imene. Chiratidzo chakaiswa muna 1791, Chipikirwa chaClaus chinovimbisa kuti &lquo; muutsotsi hwose, mukurwisana napamberi pemhosva, mupomerwi achafarikanya maruramiro &helpip; kutarisana nezvapupu mukurwisana naye. ” ichi chitsamanwa chinoratidzika kuva chakapfava chakaparira mazana amakore okududzirwa, rondedzero yedzidzo, uye evo inoshandura muenzaniso. Kubva munguva yokutanga ’ hondo muchakavanzika nhasi muwirirano ku&squo; matudender oult yemicheto yemicheto yemicheto yemicheto yemicheto, zvinyorwa zvevhidhiyo, zvinogara zviri kure kuukwa zvapamutemo zvedare.

Mavambo Epomero yaClaus: Kubva Kubvunzurudzo dzeEngland Kuenda Kumutongo Wekodzero Dzevanhu

Manyuko enhau eBhanisica Claus ari mukusashandiswa zvakanaka kwegadziriro yemitemo yeEngland iyo vaAmerica vanotongwa nehurumende vakazvionera vamene. Muzana ramakore rechi16 nerechi17, matare eEngland akabvumidza kushandiswa kwe hex divict affidavits [ uye kutaura kwenzwi pamusoro pevakwiridziridzi, kazhinji kazhinji pasina mukana upi noupi nokuda kwomupomeri anopomerwa kuti apedze zvapupu. Kutongwa kwakaipa kwaSir Walter Raleigh muna 1603, umo akawanirwa mhaka huru pakureurura kwakanyorwa kweco-pispirano inofungidzirwa iyo isina kutongooneka mudare, yakava danidziro nokuda kwavamuchinjidziri wenhau ino. Vatengi vebumbiro remitemo vakatemwaro vakatemwa munhau ino, uye kudzokororo yeCelaniuss Clausss akagadzirwa kuti adzivise kudzokazve; &ooous;

Mukati mokunyorwa kweBill of Rights, James Madison akaziva kuti mukwidziridziridziri ’ mano okutarisana navapomeri vake akabatira madonzo akawanda: kwakavimbisa kuvimbika kwoufakazi kupfurikidza nokuhuisa kudzorwa kwokuongorora kwomuchinjikwa, kwakagombedzera zvapupu kupupurira mutyisidziro yetyisidziro yekodzero, uye kwakabvumira vatongi kucherekedza chitarisiko choufakazi somunhu oga. Nzwisiso yapakuvamba yakanga yakavakirwa mu “ kudikanwa kwomutemo wakakurumbira nokuda kweuchapupu hupenyu, ” sokucherekedza kwakaita Dare Rapamusorosoro gare gare gare. aya mashoko enhau anotsoropodza: Claus akanga asiri murwi akaisvonaka asi anorevererwa pahurumende.

Kududzira Kukuru Kwokutonga: Makore Okuumba (1791 - 1965)

Kwerinopfuura zana ramakore pashure pokunatsa, Bhaspital Claus akagamuchira ngwariro yakaganhurirwa zvikuru yeDare Gurusa. Court’ zvisarudzo zvapakuvamba zvakashandisa zvikuru chisimiro, chiso kumativi. Mu] Matox v. United States [[FLT] [1] [18555] [[FLT] [] [1855] Dare rairangarira kuti kodzero yokupesana haigoni kuderedzwa nenharo, asi yakazivawo kuti Clausus akanga asina kutongokwakakwana. Dare rakataura, “ Chisarudzo chikuru [Creast Clauscoske] chaidzorwa kana kuti rutivi rwaidzikoke rutivi rwamazati anoshandiswa mukuvaranwa mukuvara rinoshandiswa mukuvarira romusungwa. &91; Chisaruso chiziviso chikuru chinoteswe chakavimbika, chinoteverwa nemhaka yedzidziso yakatendeka zvikuru, chitsaurwa pasi pedzidziso. Chitanhatu, Chikamu chikuru, chinoti chagara.

Mukutanga kwezana remakore rechi20, matare epasi pevhu akarwisana nekusawirirana kwaiita Claus nepfambi dzakawanda dzaisanzwa.

Waterod: Coptant v Texas (1965) uye Kufambiswa

Nguva yechinjo huru yakasvika [FLT] Pointer v. Texas[FLT] (65). Munhau iyoyo, Dare Gurusa rakataura kuti Sixth Amendment ’ Kupesana kwakaitwa kuti kushandisirwe kunyika kupfurikidza ne Fitenth Amendment[[[FLT] Confectedment] &ctsquo; ClausClausquo; Mutement Programme. Iyi dzidziso yakareva kuti vapostristrist zvino vane kodzero yedziviriro imwe cheteyo semitezotezotesitina. Dare rakasimbisa mativi ose anochinjika kuumbika kuidzikanisa ufakazi hwavo hwakarurama.

The Modern Framework: Kubva kuOhio kuvambira pak. Roberts kusvika kuCrawford v. Washington

Kwamakumi amakore pashure peSarudzo, mupimo unodzora kunzvera kwamashoko kwakarongwa mu Ohio v. Roberts [1980]. Pasi paRoberts, ufakazi hwenzwi hwaiva husingaoneki kana hwakawira mukati me “ hwakasimba zvikuru kuvhozhozhokesa kwapakarepo kwe” kana kuti zvimwe bvu reko revo reviso reCumicrence. ” uku kuedzwa kwakavimbika kwakapa vatongi kungwararira kwakati kuti kuve migumisiro isingawirirani. Vatsoronge vapari vedare vakabvumira kuti vaparidzi kuti vapire mashoko pasina mukana une revo wokuedza kuongorora chikwa. Chinjo yakarongwa. Chinjo yakaitwa kuti vapandukiridziridziridzi

Crawford v. Washington (2004): A Paradigm Shift

Mu . [FLT][FRAW1][[FLT]], Dare Gurusa rakagadza chivako chaRoberts ndokudzorera dudziro yapakuvamba zvikuru yeBrideclation Claus. Mhaka yakabatanidza Michael Crawford, uyo akapomerwa kudenha nokuedza kuuraya. Mukuedza kwake, kupomera kwakaita tape-pepa romudzimai wake, Sylvia, iyo yakanga yapiwa mapurisa mukati mebvunzurudzo. Nemhaka yeropafadzo yeroorano yeWashington &squo; Sylvia haana kupupurira, asi hurumende yakasuma kutaura kwake mumashoko okurevesa. Washington yakawana kutaura kwokuvanza kwokuramba nokuda kwemhindu pasi pechipoteko. Sycroupt, Chisarust chaidzoro chaidzorwa. Chisarutsungidzo chakapiwa nedare renhau renhau reSigne; akato anenge asina kupupurira nokuda kwokutongwa, asi akatototongerwa.

Achinyorera voruzhinji, Mutongi Scalia akaramba muedzo waRoberts wokuvimba. “ Clausquo; chinhu chikuru ndirwo runyerekupe, ” uye kuti kuvimbika i &lquamorous, kana kusati kuri chose chose, murangariro. &crardquo; chisarudzo cheCrawford chakada matare kuisa ngwariro pakuti mashoko akanga ari “ titleon ” muchisiko. Kana yakanga iri nzira bedzi yokuabvuma pasina declarate inooneka mudare rakanga riri apo chapupu chisati chawanikwa uye mukwidziripo akanga ane mukana usati wavapo kudarika. Ichi chiratiso chakajeka chakajeka chakajeka. Chisaidzo chinobudisazve ufakazi hwemitemo yenhau yepasvo; &rdeo; anopupurira bedzi pasina kutongwa kwapakuvamba, pamberi pokutongwa, pamberi pokutongwa kwedare, dare, dare idzva rapakuvamba, risati raparirwa, pamberi pekutongwa, dare.

Pedzisa - Crawford: Kurondedzera Kuedza

Mugumisiro waCrawford wakaparira indasitiri yezviduku yechaimo pamusoro peicho chaizvoizvo chinoumba “ tsinhiro yepa&rdquo. Dare rakataura uyu mubvunzo mumhaka dzinoverengeka dzinotevera:

  • Davis v. Washington[FLT:] (2006: Dare rakasiyana pakati pemashoko akataurwa mukati mebvunzurudzo yamapurisa yaipupurira (i., zvikurukuru kutanga zvinoitika zvomunguva yakapfuura zvokurovererwa) uye ayo asingarangariri kutongwa (i., akaitwa kuti agone kugonana nekurumidziro inopfuurira). Apo nyajambwa ainzi Dhavis akanga achimudenha, kutaura kwake kwairangarirwa kuva kusingaregi kurangarira nemhaka yokuti chinangwa chikuru chakanga chiri kutsunga nguva yapaniki yapa. Nhando yakapiwa mapurisa pashure pekunge adzikiswa namashoko apfuudzirwa.
  • [FLT][FLT]Melendez-Diaz v. Massachusetts (2009): Dare rakaramba kuti Dare rapabhodhi reratory raizivisa cocaine sechinyakare. Nyanzvi dzakagadzirira mishumo yacho dzinofanira kupupurira pakutongwa kutoti mukwirirwi akava nomukana wokutanga wokuyambuka. Chisarudzo ichi chakamutsa gakava pamusoro pemuro pamusoro pezvisakiso zveutsotsi uye kudikanwa kwechipupuriro chipenyu kubva kunyanzvi dzearabhu.
  • Blullating v. New Mexico (2011) (2011) Dare rakatambanudza Mendez-Diaz, richitaura kuti apo munzveri weropa rinonyumwa anoshuma mugumisiro wedoro, muchuchisi haagoni kutsiva mumwe muongorori kuti apupurire pamusoro pomushumo wacho kana muongorori chaiye uyo akaita kuedza kwacho asingapupuriri, kutoti mupurisa wacho akava nebanza rapakuvamba rokuyambuka ropa reamine muongorori chaiye.
  • Palliams v. Illinois (2012): Dare rakaparadzika rakapa pfungwa isina vazhinji pamusoro pokuti mashoko akataurwa nenyanzvi muADNA akanga ari echokwadi here. Chisarudzo chakaderera chakaitwa neMutongi Alito, chakawana kuti mishumo yakadaro ingagona kuziviswa sehwaro hwenyanzvi inotenda ’ mifungo, kunyange kana kutaura kwapamberi kwapabo vamene kwaizova kwechapupurirwa. Ichi chisarudzo chasara matare akaderera mukusanyorwa uye chinoramba chiri nzvimbo inokwikwidzana yomutemo.

Zviratidzo Neganhuriro Dzokupokanidzana

Dare rapamusoro zvikurusa rakaziva kuti Bhaspital Claus, nepo rakasimba, harina miganhu. Kunyange pasi peCrawford, runyerekupe rwakasanosakagadzwa ruchiripo nemhaka yokuti harurangarirwi kuva rupupuriro muchisiko. Izvozvi zvinosanganisira:

  • Mashoko okuzivisa: Tsigiro dzinoitwa muchitendero chorufu rwava pedyo dzinodavirika, kunyange kana ufakazi, nemhaka yepereji radzo renhau. Voruzhinji vakacherekedza zvakajeka kuti zviziviso zvaifa zvakanga zviri zvakasiyana nomutemo wavose uye nokudaro sezvinobvira zvakapukunyuka Claus.
  • Kutsiva kupfurikidza nekuita zvakaipa: Kana mukwirirwi akatora kusashaikwa kwouchapupu kupfurikidza nechakaipa (kwakadai sokutyisidzira, kuponda, kana kuti kumanikidza) “‘ Mukwirirwi anorasikirwa namaruramiro ake ekurukurirano. [[FLT]] Giles v. California [2008] , Dare rakajekesa kuti mukwirirwi anofanira kuita nevavariro kudzivirira uchapupu; chakaipa chavose chinoguma netsaona mukusaita.
  • Tsvaka rebhizimisi naRecords dzavose (Nontiphitorial):[[FT:1] Zvinyorwa zveRouti zvinochengeterwa madonzo okutarisira, zvakadai se 911 foni dzematanda kana kuti zvimiro zvokutakura chipatara, zvinowanzorangarirwa kuva zvisingaendi kutendeka nemhaka yokuti donzo razvo guru harisi kutanga ufakazi hwokukwidzwa. Zvisinei, zvinyorwa zvakaitwa zvakananga nokuda kwokupinzwa, zvakadai semishumo yemapurisa, zvingava chibvumikiso.

Musiyano mukuru unoramba uripo kana kutaura kwacho kwakaitwa mumashoko akapoteredza umo munhu ane mufungo aizofanoona kushandiswa kwako mumatare etsotsi. Iri “ donzo repondo ” kuedza, sezvinotaurwa muDavis uye nhau dzapashure, ndiro mbombo yokunzvera kwerwisano yazvino uno.

Zvinetso Zvazvino Uno: Ruzivo Rwokugadzira Zvinhu, Uchapupu Huri Kure, uye Nguva Yokushandisa Madhigirii

Zana ramakore rechi21 rakaunza denho dzisingaenzaniswi kuBhanisica Claus. Kuwanda kwoufakazi hwemichina hunobudiswa kubva pafoni dzeserura kusvikira kuGPS inonyora marekodhi, hofisi dzesomubatanidzwa wemasangano enhau, uye kuongororwa kwenhunhunhu, uye kutadza kuongorora zvinhu (zvinomutsa mibvunzo yakaoma pamusoro pezvinoita kuti &lquo; moustion ” uye kana mashoko emichina anogona kuva echokwadi. Matare anowanzodavira kuti mashoko emichina anonyorwa haabvumirwi nemhaka yokuti haasati ari mashoko omunhu. Asi kana mashoko iwayo akashandurwa nomuongorori wevanhu (g., muok.DNA anoongorora anorondedzera mugadziri wekombiyuta anogona kuva anobatsira kuongorora projecter; migumisiro yenhaumende yenhau yenhau.

Chipupuriro chevhidhiyo chiri kure neCOVID-19

ZVITAURO ZVIKASHUWA ZVINOSARURASA ZVICHIDZIWA KUTANGA UTWANDAUDZANA HWENHAU YOKUSARUDZA KUSARUDZA ZVISIKWANA KUVHA ZVIMWE ZVINOTANGA UMBONI ZVINHU ZVISINGASATI ZVINHU. [[FLT] [FLT] ZVINOTANGA] ZVINOTANGANA NOKUVAKIRANGANA] KUVHA NOKUVHANZWA [[FUNITE]] [[FLT]] [[FLT]] [FLT]]] [[FLT]].[FLT][F OK][F:3]] [[FLT]] [[4] [[FOT] [i] [i] [ichoto] [i] , kana kuti pane uchapupu hupi. Hupiso, kunyange , mativi anotoshatsa kupfupika , asirira kupfurikidza nokuedza, mativi ose, sezvinooneka, sezvinowanika, sezvinowanika zvikuru, sezvinowanika nokuda

Uchapupu Hwokugadzira Zvinhu Pamadhiragi: Nhaka yaWilliams

Imwe yenzvimbo dzinokakavadzana zvikurusa kushandiswa kwe DAN] mishumo, miuyo yechepfu yechepfu yedzidzo yerabhoritari. Dzimwe dzinoti kuongorora pasina kudana muongorori wokutanga. Parigamendias v.Illinois[ chisarudzo chakasiya matare enyasi pasina nhungamiro. Mamwe matunhu anodavira kuti mutsigiri muteveri anofanira kubudisa muongorori wepakutanga; vamwe vanobvumira nyanzvi kutsanangura zviwanwa zviri pasi perabhoratory kana mushumo wacho usati waiswa muuchapupu. Iyi yakaparira musasa wekuti &cto; Dare gurusa renhau rinosagona kupupurira kana zvichibvira mugumisiro wenhau inosa. [FFF:][4][6]

Mutsetse Wapasi Pose Nemharadzi Yamarudzi Ose

Utsotsi hwakapararira munyika yose hwakamanikidzira matare kurangarira kana Bhaspital Claus achishanda kumashoko akataurwa navakuru vakuru vokumwe kana kuti pasi pomutemo wokumwe. [FLT]] United States v. Abu Hazza [2010] [2010] , Dare reChipiri rakataura kuti mashoko akapiwa mapurisa okumwe mukati mekumwe mukati mekubvunzurudzwa hakungopupuri muruvara pasi peCrawford kana kuti nhau dzokunze dzisati dzaitwa neziso kuU.S. kupomera mhaka ino inoramba isingadzorwi, uye matare akaderera anoshandisa muedzo mukuru wedonzo wedonzo romumwe munhu wokumwe muongoro. Kupiwa kwoufakazi hwemhiri kwamabhirindi enyika dzakawanda dzehondo kana kuti mapepa edzimwe nyika dzinopa zvinyorwa zvitsva.

Kurwisana kwaClaus Nekodzero Dzevanyajambwa

Imwe dzvinyiriro yazvino uno inoitira hanya maruramiro avanyajambwa voutsotsi pasi pehurumende navanotapurwa nehurumende ’ mitemo yekodzero. Mibairo yeCrime Actsquo; Rights Act (CVRA) ya 2004 nemitemo miganhu mizhinji yehurumende inopa vanyajambwa kodzero yokuvapo pakutongwa nokunzwiwa. Apo mwana kana kuti mukuru asina dziviriro ndiye nyajambwa, matare anofanira kudzikamisa mukwikwidzi mukurwisana nomunyajambwa ’ mhindu mukudzivisa njodzi. Maryland] . anoramba ari muenzaniso unodzora nokuda kwezvapupu zvavana, asi akapfuurira kuva akura kuva akura kuva vanyajambwa vendangariro vakangwara kana kuti vane mirangariro yakakomba. Rumano rwemifungo runoraira kushaiwa zvikuru kutevedzerwa kwoudzo.

Nhungamiro Dzomunguva Yemberi: Kupokana naClaus Muzana Ramakore Rechi 21

Ruzivo rwokugadzirwa kwezvinhu zvarunopfuurira kupfuura dzidziso yapamutemo, Sixth Amendment ’ bonderano yaruramisiro ichatarisana nemiedzo mitsva. Ungwaru hwokugadzira huri kutoshandiswa kubudisa mishumo, kunzvera ufakazi, uye kunyange kuita uchapupu hwakadzika. Ndiani ari &lquo; chapupu &squo; apo purogiramu yeAIS inobudisa mashoko anoshandiswa gare gare gare mukwidziridzi? Muchina unogona kutozoda kusarudza kuti kutaura kwemichina hakusati kuri pamutemo nemhaka yokuti havana vaderenda vashai vashai vanoshandisa maturu eAIngculquo; mhedziso dzinotorwa nanyanzvi dzinoshandisa maAlayford &quo; maabit.

Kumuka kwe [[FLT: 0] kuripowo. Kana kamera yemapurisa ichibata chapupu ’ mashoko pamufananidzo, ndeyeichiono chetsono neshandiso ye kamera yepabono ye [FLT] metal-menu yekamera inomutsawo mibvunzo. Kana kamera yemapurisa ichibata chapupu ’ mashoko acho panzvimbo ino, ndeeyiyi? Pakaitika chikanga kapo, kana kutaura kwacho kwakaitwa mukupindura mukuru mukuru wedare &squo; mibvunzo mukati mechino, ingangove isingashandisi uchapupu ’ asi kunzvera kukuru. Asi kana kamera kakabata chapupuriro, kusinganyanduri kurangarira kwakasiana neboka. Dare gurusa rinona kukurukura nomuviri hakuna kunzvera kwomuviri kutona kupfurikidza noudzoro, asi kunzvera kwakakomba kwakawanda.

Pakupedzisira, mitoo yemavambo [[FLT: 1] inotsigirwa neMutongi Scalia muCrawford inopfuurira kudzora Court’ speed, asi nguva yayo yemberi haina chokwadi sezvo ruramisiro itsva inouya kubhenji. Dzimwe nyanzvi dzinotsigira mutoo wakapfava zvikuru, wakavimbika uyo ungabvumira matare kubvuma runyerekupe rwakavimbika kunyange pasina muchinjikwa usati watanga. Vamwe vanotaura kuti kutsanangura kwakasimba bedzi, kunokosha kunodzivirira vapomeri vadzorwi kubva kuhurumende yakashata. Kudzikamiswa kwezvamatongerwe enyika nemitemo kweDare kuchaumba nzira iyo Dare ringatarisana naClaus richaita mumakumi amakore anouya.

Mugumisiro: Nhaka Ipenyu Yokupesana

Mhindumupindu yekodzero yokunangana nezvapupu inhau yokuchinja kwakavakirwa panheyo isingagumi: mukwiridziri wemhosva anofanira kuva nebanza rakarurama rokuedza kuvapo kwehurumende’ ufakazi. Kubva kuSch Star Chamber kusvikira kudare razvino uno reAmerica, kubva pamaoko akanyorwa kuti anoramba achinangana neADNA, matare anoramba achibvumikisa kuva dziviriro yakasimba yerusununguko. Haisi inongorayira bedzi mukana wokuvapo, asi mukana wechienzi wokupomera mhaka kudenha ufakazi hwavo. Sangano, uye mamiriro ezvinhu outsotsi anoramba achishandura, uye kudzokororwa kutendeka kwenhau inotokosha nhasi. Chidzidzo chikurusa cheprossquas; inhau yacho ndiyo inoraira kurangarira kodzero dzavo dzokungwarira nguva dzose.

nokuda kwokuravazve, ona rugwaro rwakazara rwe [[FLT: 1] Claus paCornell LII, Dare Gurusa ’ pfungwa mu Carawford v. Washington [2004] [2004], uye American Bar Association ’s tarle on britic noufakazi hwemite yemitengo.[FL:6]