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Nhoroondo Yezvakaitika Pazvaifanira Kuitwa Claus

Kubva paMagna Carta Kuenda kuMutemo Wavose weChirungu

Murangariro wegadziriro yakafanira une mavambo makuru munhau yemitemo yeEngland. Magna Carta ya1215 yakasimbisa kuti "hapana munhu akasununguka achabatwa kana kuiswa mutorongo, kana kuti kubviswa maruramiro ake kana kuti zvinhu, kana kuti kurambidzwa kana kuti kutapwa, kana kuti kunyimwa kumira kwake mune imwe nzira ipi neipi, kana kuti hatizopfuuriri nesimba mukurwisana naye, kana kuti kutuma vamwe kuti vaite saizvozvo, kunze kwokutonga kwapamutemo kwavanhu vake kana kuti nomutemo wenyika. Iyi nheyo yokuti mutongi anofanira kutevera mutemo wakagadzwa asati aita chiito chechiNgezi. Mumazana amakore, mashoko "mutemo wenyika" wakashanduka kupinda mu "muitiro womutemo," unoratidza pfungwa yokuti miitiro yemitemo inofanira kuva yakarurama, uye yakarongwa.

Nyika Dzine Nyika Dzake Nenguva Yakatanga

Vagari vomuAmerica vakagara nhaka iyi gamuchidzanwa rapamutemo reEngland. Tsigina yeSangano reHurumende yapakuvamba kazhinji kazhinji zvaibatanidza zvibvumikiso zvemuitiro wakafanira. Apo Convention yeBumbiro reMitemo yakasangana muna 1787, vagadziri vaiziva zvikuru kudikanwa kwokudzivirira vanhu muchiito chehurumende chakazvimirira. James Madison, uyo akanyoresa Bill of Rights, akabatanidza donzo reSaint Procession Claus muFith Amendment sechidzoresori pahurumende itsva yehurumende. Chitsama chitsama chitsama chitsama: "Hakuna munhu achanyiwa upenyu, rusununguko, kana kuti zvinhu, pasina muitiro wakafanira womutemo," donzo rapakuvamba kuva nechokwadi chokuti dare renyika yeFilicratiary nerosariary haigoni kuita muchimiro chisina kururama mukurwisana nomunhu upi noupi.

Kuchinja Kwechigumi Negumi Negumi Nokusawirirana

Pashure peHondo yeChivil, Reconstructon Congress yakatsvaka kutambanudzira dziviriro dzehurumende dzehurumende. Igumi namanath Amendment, yakatenderwa muna 1868, yakabatanidza yayo imene Nhevedzo yeChiitiko Claus: "Hapana Hurumende ipi neipi ichanyima munhu upi noupi upenyu, rusununguko, kana kuti zvinhu, pasina mutoo wakafanira wemitemo inodzivirira Hurumende yeAmerica. Iyi gadziriro yakachinja zvikurukuru kupfurikidza nokubvumira vanhu kudenha mitemo yehurumende nezviito zvinoputsa kururama kukuru. Nokufamba kwenguva yakati, Dare rapamusoro-soro rakashandisa Kugadziriswa kweMitemo ye 1450 yePrositemu yeUS Classiaclaus ku "Incorate" zvikurusa yeBill yekodzero dzekodzero dzehurumende, muitiro wakakuwedzera zvinoshamisa kusvika kusvika kuzvibvumirano zvemitemo yehurumende.

Kurongwa Kunofanira Kuitwa

Muitiro wakafanira webumbiro remitemo unonongedzera kuchinodikanwa chebumbiro-mitemo chokuti hurumende inofanira kutevera miitiro inoruramisira neyakagadzwa isati yanyima munhu upi noupi woupenyu, rusununguko, kana kuti chinhu. Haisati ichiitira hanya donzo romutemo asi mitoo inoshandiswa kuugombedzera. Masero anobatanidza chiziviso chakakwana, banza rokunzwiwa pamberi pomuiti wechisarudzo asina kutora rutivi, uye banza rine revo rokupa ufakazi nechibvumikiso.

Ziva uye Mukana Wokunzwiwa

Pachinhu chikurusa, mutoo wakafanira unoda kuti munhu agamuchire chiziviso chakajeka, chapanguva, uye chakananga chechiito chipi nechipi chehurumende chingakuvadza maruramiro avo. Somuenzaniso, hurumende isati yagona kubvisa betsero dzegarikano, inofanira kuzivisa mugamuchiri wechiito chinokarakadzwa nezvikonzero zvacho. Mukana wokunzwiwa unofanira kuitika panguva ine revo uye nomutoo une revo. Mumashoko akawanda, izvi zvinobatanidza maruramiro kukunzwa kwomuromo, kodzero yokudana zvapupu, uye kodzero yokuva nomufananidzo wapamutemo. Dare Rapamusoro mu Goldberg v.[FLT:] [70]) (1970) rairangarira kuti proccucurate anodikanwa mutoo wakajeka unova wakazara pakunzwa pamberi pokuwana betsero yemiuyo, maruramiro okuziva miuyo inoguma kwakakomba, inokwanisa kubviswa kuzivikanwa kwakakomba.

Muiti Wechisarudzo Chokusatora Rutivi uye Mutongi Asingasaruri

Chimwe chinhu chinokosha chinodikanwa chomumiririri asingasaruri. Munogadzira chisarudzo haagoni kuva nedanda romunhu oga kana kuti remari mumugumisiro. Munhau dzoutsotsi, urwu maruramiro runoiswa muvimbiso yeSitanhatu ye "dare risingasaruri" Mumiitiro yehurumende, inoshanda kuvatongi, vakuru vakuru vakuru vanonzwa. Dare rapamusoro rehurumende rinopa vatongi sundo yemari kuti vawanire mhaka mhaka mhaka, kusimbisa kuti kunyange kuoneka kwefungira mano akaipa kunoderedza chivimbo chavose mutsika yeruramisiro.

Kugadzirwa Kunoitwa Zvisati Zvaitika Mumashoko Akajeka

Mumuitiro wakafanira unosiana namashoko akapoteredza. Mumutemo weutsotsi, inoda maruramiro makuru edare rinotonga nokuda kwemhosva dzakakomba, maruramiro okutarisana nezvapupu, dziviriro mukurwisana nokumanikidzwa kuzviita, uye hwirudzuro. Mukupomera kwavagari vemo, inoda ziviso yedare, mukana wokunyora mhinduro, uye maruramiro okutonga nokuda kwokutaura kwamashoko akati. Mumutemo wedare, masangano anofanira kugovera kuzivisa nokutsinhira miitiro yokutonga nokunzwa kwakarurama pamberi pokubvisa mareze kana kuti zvirango. Kuchinjika kwomuitiro weprocrate Bagrocratic regial kunobvumira matare kuyera mhindu yapamhotera, ngozi yokushaiwa mhaka dzakashata, uye fariro yehurumende mukubudirira.

Gadziriro Inokosha Inofanira Kuitwa

Muitiro wakafanira unomutsa nharo zvikuru uye unosvikira kure. Inotaura kuti dzimwe maruramiro makuru akadzika midzi zvikuru munhau yorudzi namagamuchidzanwa zvokuti haagoni kudzorwa nehurumende, pasinei zvapo nemiitiro inoshandiswa. Namamwe mashoko, kunyange kana hurumende ichigovera ziviso nokunzwa, ingangoputsa muitiro wakafanira kana ikadzongonyedza mutengo wakadzivirirwa kana kuti mufariro yepfuma pasina ruramiso inogombedzera.

Mavambo Nokukura

Dzidziso yakatanga kubuda mukupera kwezana ramakore rechi 19. Mu Allgeyer v. Louisiana (1897), Dare Rapamusoro reHurumende rakamisa mutemo wehurumende wakaganhurira zvibvumirano zveinishuwarenzi, uchiita kuti "Imba yeMitemo yeMitemo" yakadzivirirwa neIndaneti yakabatanidza rusununguko rwokupinda mubvumirano dzapamutemo. Uyu mutsetse wokurangarira wakakwirira mu LCOchner v. New York[FLT] [12] [3] (19055], umo Dare raideredza mutemo wakakomba wehurumende sechiporatiso chemipi yemigote sechibvumirano. Nguva inovapo, kusvikira nguva ya1930, yakaona Dare rezvemari rakawanda. Zvisinei, [F.F.34]

Kumutsidzira Nokuwedzera Kodzero Dzapakuvamba

Kutanga muma 1960, Dare Rapamusoro rakamutsidzira muitiro wakafanira wokudzivirira kuzvimirira kwomunhu oga nekodzero dzakavanzika. Mu Griswold v. Connecticut[ [65], Dare rakadzika mutemo unorambidza kushandiswa kwezvisarudzo kuvata, kuwana kuti Nhengo yeChiitiko cha Clauslet inodzivirira nzvimbo yakavanzika inobuda mumitemo mizhinji. Uku kurangarira kwakawedzerwa mu [FLT:] Eenstad v. Baird[[FL:]] [3]] vanhu vasina kuroora uye [mutongo wakakomba].[FLFL: 4,4].[5]

Kupokanidza Nokutsoropodza

Muitiro wakafanira unoramba uchipokanidzwa zvikuru. Vatsoropodzi vanotaura kuti dzidziso inobvumira vatongi vasina kusarudzwa kuisa zvisarudzo zvavo vamene zvetsika muchimiro chebumbiro remitemo. Mascription anopikisa kuti Gwendero Renyika Noapora rakaitirwa bedzi kuvimbisa miitiro yakarurama, kwete kugadzira maruramiro asina kusiana. Chisarudzo cheDare Gurusa mu Dobs v. Jackson’s Health Organization [2022], iyo inotonga Roe naCasey, inoratidzira kubviswa kwekodzero dzokubvisa pamuviri mumugariro wapashure. Chirevo chinoparira kuti kubvisa mimba kusingadziyiyiyiyi yakavakirwa zvikuru munhau yeAmerica uye mutoo wakati wakaderera zvinofanira kuganhurirwa ku "kudzorwa, inodzorwa zvikuru munhau inopfuurirwa munhau inopfuurirwa naMarudzi." inosara kubetsera kupfurikidza namaruramiro avabereki kuto kuto, sezvinotendwa nokusaidzwa namashoko anoramba kubetsera, achibetsera kuti anoshanda munhau dzenyika, kuti asha.

Kuratidzira Mhaka Dzapamusorosoro Dzedare

Tsamba inonzi The THE The ST Ecrom Claus ndiyo yakabatsira chaizvo pamitongo yakawanda yakapiwa neDare Repamusorosoro inoratidza kuti rakabva kushanduka - shanduka uye rakaita kuti pave nezvarinoita.

Glucksberg (1997)

Mu Shashington v. Glucksberg, Dare rakataura kana Dare Gurusa rakadzivirira kodzero yokubetsera kuzviuraya. Dare rakatsigira mutemo wehurumende yeWashington unorambidza kuzviuraya kwachiremba, richirangarira kuti kururama kwakanga kusati kwadzika midzi zvikuru munhau yerudzi urwu negamuchidzanwa. Chisarudzo chacho chakatanga kuedza kwemativi maviri ebasa rakafanira kutaura kuti: kutanga, rudyi chinofanira kuva chakadzika midzirwa zvikuru munhau; chechipiri, kunofanira kusanorondedzerwa. Uku kuedzwa kwainzi "Glucksberg" kwakashandiswa kuganhurira kukura kodzero dzisina kunyorwa.

Mavara (1903) naDobbs v. Jackson Vakadzi Vane utano (2022)

Rwoe v. yaidavira kuti Dare rapamberi rinodzivirira chisarudzo chomukadzi chokubvisa pamuviri. Dare rakaziva gadziriro yakaganhurirwa inodzikamisa fariro dzomukadzi nefariro dzomunhu dzomunhu oga nefariro dzoutano hwaamai nedzinobvira. Iyi chisarudzo chakasimbiswazve mu [[FLT:] [[FLT]] [[FLT]] [v. Caselve [[FLT]] [3] [1992], iyo yakatsiva chigadziko cheidzo ne "mutoro webasa rekubereka". Zvisinei, mu [FLT:] Madobs aMasangano eutano [FLT] [FLT] [FLT] [FLT] [FF]], Dare rokubvisa pamuviri nakudzosera, rinodzosera kupanikira kupanikira kunhauro.

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)

Mu Obergefell v. Hodges, Dare Rapamusoro rakaramba kuti Dare reMitemo re 144th Amendment rinoda kuti nyika dzose dzitenderedze ndokuziva roorano dzevatano imwe cheteyo. Dare rakashandisa Gungano naFomment Programme naFrection Claus, ri kuwana kuti kodzero yokuroora ikodzero inokosha inotambanukira kuvakwani vouvaviri vamwe chetevo. Mutongi Kennedy ’ mifungo mizhinji inosimbisa chiremera chomunhu oga nechisarudzo chomubatanidzwa weroorano. Oberge Fall inomirira chiratidzo chemvura yakakwirira yezvikwaniselo zvechikwa panzvimbo zvevatano yapamberi.

Griswold v. Connecticut (1965)

Griswold v.Connecticut yakaputsa mutemo wehurumende uyo wakaputsa kushandiswa kwezvisakafanira zvokudzivisa kunamba pamuviri navaroorani. Kunyange zvazvo Dare risina kuvimba zvakajeka nerugwaro rumwe, raidavira kuti gadziriro dzakasiana---- siyana dzeBill of Rights dzinogadzira "penumbras" dzinodzivirira kodzero yokuvanza roorano. Zviitiko zvapashure, kubatanidza Eenstadt uye [[FLT:]] RO[FLD:5], dzinodzika maruramiro echo chakavanzika muChiitiro chaparo chapasu. Griscold anowanzopiwa mbiri nemuitiro wazvino unoshuwakanwa.

Matthews v. Eldridge (1976)

Mateu ne. Eldiridge yakatanga nzvero yakadzikama nokuda kwegadziriro yakafanira yegadziriro. Dare rakatonga kuti pakusarudza muitiro uri madikanwa, matare anofanira kurangarira zvinhu zvitatu: fariro yomunhu oga yakatapurwa, ngozi yokushaiwa kwakaipa mumiitiro yazvino uno noukoshi hunobvira hwedziviriro dzokuwedzera, uye fariro yehurumende, kubatanidza mitoro yezvikwaniriso nedzokudzora.

Mukuhwinazve (1970)

Muwinshir yaidavira kuti munhau dzakashata dzavechiduku, mupimo weufakazi unofanira kuva "kusava nepanikiro ine mufungo," zvakafanana nomumhaka dzoutsotsi dzavakuru. Dare rakarangarira kuti Gungano rapamberi paro rinoda kuti hapana munhu upi noupi aziviswe kuva asina kusindimara pasina chibvumikiso chechiito chikurusa. Chisarudzo ichi chakatambanudza dziviriro dzomutemo kupwere ndokusimbisa nheyo yokuti nyika inofanira kutarisana nomutoro unorema pamberi pokunyima munhu upi noupi worusununguko.

Tapuro Paruramisiro Yeutsotsi

Dare reChibvumirano raSystem Claus rakaumba zvikurukuru gadziriro yemitemo yetsotsi reAmerica. Rinovimbisa dziviriro huru nokuda kwavakwirirwi: maruramiro okutonga kwokukurumidza uye kwavose kupfurikidza nedare risingasaruri, maruramiro ezano rapamutemo, dziviriro pamunhu oga, uye maruramiro okunangana. Uku kudzivirira hakusati kuriwo zvako kupfurikidza nemitemo; kunokosha kudzivisa zvitendero zvisina kururama uye kuvimbisa kuti simba rehurumende rokubatira pamwe rinoshandiswa zvakanaka.

Kodzero Yezano

Dare rapamusoro zvikurusa mu Gideon v. Wainwright (1963) raidavira kuti maruramiro eChiteshi Chinodikanwa Claus anoda nyika kugovera zano rapamutemo kuvakwiridziridziri vemhosva dzemhosva. Gare gare zvisarudzo zvakatambanudzira iri maruramiro kukuva vasungwa pasina kubetsera kwezano, dzimwe kodzero dzemiitiro inova isina maturo. Rudziso rwokupa zano ndirimwe ramazano anokosha zvikurusa eMitemo yeClauske mumutemo woutsotsi.

Kudzivirirwa Pakuzvishora uye Ufakazi Husina Kuvimbika

Chikomborero cheFindre Confelment chinorwisana neSangano reChibvumirano chePremishoni chinopesana nezvibvumirano. Mu Miranda v. Arizona (1966), Dare raida kuti mapurisa azivise maruramiro avo pamberi pokubvunzurudzwa. Muitiro unorambidzawo kushandiswa kwokureurura kwamanikidzirwa noufakazi husina kuvimbika. Mu Jackson v. Denno (19644), Dare raidavira kuti mutongi, kwete dare, anofanira kusarudza kunyoresa kwerevo kureurura.

Kutapura Kusunungurwa Kwevagari Vemo

Kupfuura ruramisiro youtsotsi, Gwaro reBasa rinodzivirira rusununguko rwakawanda rwevanhu. Rave richikumbirwa kudzivirira kutaura kwakasununguka uye kuungana, rusununguko rwechitendero, kodzero dzokufamba nevabereki, uye kodzero yokufamba. Chikamu chacho chinogoverawo hwaro hwokudzivirira rusununguko rwezvemari, kunyange zvazvo rutivi irworwo rwave rusingashandisiwi zvikurukuru kubvira muma1930. Mumakumi emakore achangopfuura, mashoko acho akashandiswa kudenha zviito zvehurumende zvinokanganisa rusununguko rwomunhu, zvakadai seganhuriro pazvinodzivisa kudzora, mufambiro wakavanzika, uye roorano.

Kuronga Kwakafanira Nekodzero Yokuva Woga

Nzvimbo inomutsa nharo zvikurusa neinopesvedzera yegadziriro yapamberi yechakavanzika inobatanidza maruramiro okuvandika. Kunyange zvazvo Bumbiro reMitemo risingadudzi pachena kuva voga, Dare Rapamusorosoro rakaziva kuti Chitati Chirongwa chaClaus chinodzivirira zvisarudzo zvomunhu oga pamusoro peroorano, kubereka, kudzivirira kubereka, ukama hwemhuri, uye kurera mwana. Mu PURCE v. Sangano reVanete yapamberi reVakoma [25] [1925] na[FLT] Meyer v. Nebras[FLD:3] [1923]), Dare rakarova mitemo inodzosa dzidzo yavabereki pamusoro pedzidzo. Izvi zvisarudzo zvapakuvamba zvakaratidza maruramiro ouganhuro anozivikanwa muGriswrock uye gare gare gare gare.

Matambudziko Anozovapo

Ruzivo Rwokugadzira Zvinhu uye Kuva Woga

Kufambira mberi kwokukurumidza kworuzivo rwokugadzirwa kwezvinhu kunopa mibvunzo mitsva inodiwa. Zvirongwa zvehurumende zvokuongorora. Somuenzaniso, dare rinogona kurayira munhu anofungidzirwa kuti ape mashoko okuvhura runhare pasina kuputsa ropafadzo yokuzvimiririra here kana kuti kwete?

Kudavira Mashura Kunopesana Nezvakasikwa.

Gakava pamusoro pomuitiro unowirirana pamusoro pechisakiso chinowirirana ikurukuriranowo pamusoro pedudziro yebumbiro remitemo. Vanyori vemavambo vanotaura kuti vatongi vanofanira kungomanikidza bedzi kodzero idzo dzakadzikamiswa mumagwaro kana kuti munhau. Vanyori vemitemo yokurarama vanopesana kuti mutauro waMasangano aAwth Claus wakaitwa kuti uvepo. Rurimi rwakafara rweDare Gurusa rePurce yakaratidza kusava nechokwadi nemuitiro wakafanira, sezvinoonekwa mumaDobb. Zvisinei, dzidziso yacho inoramba yakaiswa munzvimbo dzakawanda dzomutemo, uye kurashwa kwakakwana kunoratidzika kuva kusingabviri. Nguva yemberi ichaona kugadziridzwa kunopfuurira kweGlucksberg uye sezvinobvira miganhuro mitsva pakodzero dzisina kubviswa.

Masangano Enzanga Nokuchinja Kwepamutemo

Masangano enzanga akasunda gadziriro yapamutemo yakaita nhevedzano yapamutemo. Sangano rekodzero dzavagari vemo rama 1960 raivimba nekurukurirano dzakafanira kudenha mitemo yorusaruraganda. LGBTQ+ sangano rekodzero ravanhu rinoshandiswa sechisakiso chakafanira kuchengetedza kuenzana kweroorano. Nhasi, masangano eruramisiro yedzinza nekodzero dzeremapuko anoramba achiraira muitiro wakafanira kudenha kusazvibata kwamapurisa, miitiro yokuisa mapurisa, uye kuwana pokugara. Grassroots, yakabatanidzwa nokufarira vanhu vose, inovimbisa kuti Mutezo weSangano raVacial Claus unoramba uri chishandiso chipenyu nokuda kweruramisiro.

mhedziso

Nhevedzano yeBasi reNhevedzo yaClaus inomira seimwe yegadziriro dzine simba zvikurusa nedzinochinjika muBumbiro reMitemo. Midziro yadzo yenhau muMagna Carta, zvimiro zvayo zviviri zvedziviriro yemitengi neyokudzivirira kwemitemo, uye kushanda kwayo muzviitiko zvisingaverengeki kunoratidzira basa rayo guru mukutonga kweAmerica. Nepo ukuru hwemifungo yemifungo nerevo zvinopfuurira kukwikwikwidzwa, chipikirwa chayo chikuru — kuti hurumende inofanira kuita nenzira yakaenzana nokuremekedza rusununguko runokosha — inochengeta kunokosha kutsika kwomutemo. Sezvo chaunga chakananga zvinetso zvitsva kubva kuruzivo rwemitengo, rondedzero yenzanga inochinja, uye rondedzero dzemitemo, chipikirwa cheGwarongepo Claus acharamba achidzivirira ruramisiro nokuda kwavose.