Chiratidzo Chenhau Dzedare Rapamusoro Zvikurusa Netapuro Yadzo Inopfuurira Padzikamo yeAmerica Yesimba

Dare Rapamusorosoro reUnited States rakashanda kwenguva refu somutevedzeri wokupedzisira werevo yebumbiro remitemo, richiumba kuparadzirwa kwechiremera pakati pamapazu matatu ehurumende uye pakati pehurumende yehurumende nehurumende. Kupfurikidza nenhevedzano yemitemo yechiratidzo, Dare rakarondedzera radzokororazve miganhu yedare revakuru vakuru, remitemo, uye simba rokutonga nepo richikudziridza kana kuti kuganhurira kodzero dzevanhu. Kunzwisisa izvi kunokosha kuti gadziriro yeAmerica yechekerero nedzikamo yave sei inopfuura mazana maviri amakore. Nyaya inonzvera zvisarudzo zvinoverengeka zvinokosha zveDare Gurusare, kuongorora nheyo dzayo dzepamutemo, mamiriro ezvinhu enhau, uye migumisiro inoganhuro inogarisa nokuda kwesimba resimba muUnited States.

The Foundation of Judicial Review: Marbury v. Madison (103)

Hapana nhau inoenzanisira zviri nani basa reDare Gurusa mukurondedzera chiremera charo rimene kupfuura Marbury v. Madison. Gakava rakamuka munyongano yezvamatongerwe enyika yakapoteredza sarudzo yamapresidente ya1800. Pashure pokurasikirwa naThomas Jefferson, Purezidhendi John Adams aifamba akagadza chiverengero chavatongi veFederalist, kubatanidza William Marbury seruramisiro yorugare. Apo Munyori waJefferson weHurumende James Madison akaramba kuendesa basa raMarbury, Marbury Court Criart for writ of Mandamus, achitsamira paChikamu 13 chaJudiary Act cha179.

Mutongi mukuru John Marshall akatarisana nomugariro wezvamatongerwe enyika unotambudza. Murayiro wakananga kuna Madison sezvingabvira waizofuratirwa, kunetesa Dare. Panzvimbo pezvo, Marshall akazivisa kuti Chikamu 13 cheJudiary Act chakanga chisina kuwirirana nemhaka yokuti chakakudza chiremera chapakuvamba cheDare kupfuura icho Chikamu III cheBumbiro remitemo chakabvumidzwa. Mukuita kudaro Marshall akatanga nheyo yehwirudzuro ye [[[FLT:]] [[FLT]]

Kubatsira Kunoita Simba

  • [ Chisarudzo chacho chakabatanidza dare redare sebazi rakaenzana, rinokwanisa kunzvera zvose zviri zviviri Congress napurezidhendi.
  • Kupa ngwariro nokuda kwoukuru hwebumbiro remitemo: kupfurikidza nokutaura kuti “ndicho chirevo chakasimba chebato rokutonga kutaura chiri mutemo,” Marshall akaisa hwirudzuro yokutonga muudzori hweAmerica.
  • [[FLT :0] Denho dzakaresa:[[FLT: 1] Marbury v. Madison anoramba ari mhaka yehwaro yeDare kuputsa mitemo yehurumende nehurumende, simba rainopfuurira kushandisa munenge shoko riri rose.

Simba reFederal neChinodikanwa naChinofanirwa chaClaus: McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

Apo Congress yakahaya Dare reChipiri reUnited States muna 1816, Maryland akarayira mutero pamabasa ebhangi mukati memiganhu yaro.

Mutongi mukuru Marshall akapa murangariro wakabatana uyo wakakurukura nhau mbiri huru. Chokutanga, akadavira kuti Congress yaiva namasimba airehwa pasi pe Nesarudzo neFather Claus yeChikamu I, Chikamu 8. Nepo Bumbiro reMitemo risingabvumidzi bhangi zvakajeka, rinopa Congress simba kumutero, kukwereta, uye kudzora kutengeserana (*) uye bhangi renyika rakanga riri nzira yakakodzera nerinobetsera yokutakura nayo migumisiro iyoyo. Chechipiri, Marshall akakumbira Claus Claus [[FLD:]]

Kubatsira Kunoita Simba

  • chiremera chehurumende chakapararira: McCulloch yakatanga dzidziso yamasimba anorehwa, ichipa Congress chisarudzo chakafara chokusarudza mutoo wokuita nawo mabasa ayo ebumbiro remitemo.
  • Ukuru hwechiFarise hwakasimbiswazve: kutonga kwakadzivisa nyika kushandisa simba radzo rinobhadhara kudzongonyedza masangano ehurumende, kuchisimbisa ukama hwesimba pakati pehurumende dzenyika nehurumende.
  • Blueprint nokuda kwefutunuko dzakazotevera: Iyi nhau yakagovera hwaro hwebumbiro remitemo nokuda kwokukura kwesimba rehurumende munharaunda dzakadai semutezo wezvemari, garikano, uye maruramiro avagari vemo.

Kupesana Asi Kuenzana: Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

Basa reDare mukudzivirira maruramiro avanhu vamwe navamwe nokudzorera muitiro wenzanga wakasvika chiratidzo chakakwirira ne rown v. Board of Education. Mhaka yacho yakabatanidza matare mashanu akaparadzana anodenha dzinza muchikoro chavose. Mu “imwe asi yakaenzana” dzidziso yakatangwa mu [[FLT:].[[FLT] v [FLT] [1896], inotaura kuti yakachengeta nzvimbo dzedzidzo dzevatema navachena. Vateshi, vakami veruwa, vakamirirwa naThravigrafy Marshall ne NAACPNFFFFF]

Mutongi mukuru Earl Warren akanyora chisarudzo chakabatana icho chakaramba nheyo ya “yakaparadzana asi yakaenzana” mudzidzo. Chinotsamira paufakazi hwesayenzi yenzanga kuti kusarura kwakaparira kunzwa kwokuzvidukupisa, Dare rakazivisa kuti“ zvivako zvedzidzo zvinopesana hazvienzaniswi nenzira yomuzvarirwo.” Chiratidzo chaida kubviswa kwenzvimbo “nechimbichimbichimbi chose namaune,” chitsama chamashoko chakabvumira kuitwa kwapashoma napashoma asi kunyange zvakadaro chakavamba mukuchinja kukuru kwenzanga yeAmerica.

Kubatsira Kunoita Simba

  • [[FLT: 0] Chiito chemubatanidzwa nechinjo yenzanga: Brown akaratidzira kudisa kweDare kushandisa chiremera charo kuputsa gadziriro dzenzanga dzakamira kwenguva refu ndokuita kuti bvumirano dzebumbiro remitemo ive yapamutemo.
  • Kudzikamisa kwemitemo mukudzivisa kwehurumende: chisarudzo chakasunda mutemo wakatevera wehurumende, kubatanidza Civil Rights Act ya1964 uye Voting Rights Act ya 1965, uye kazhinji kazhinji yaida kuti matare ehurumende atarisire gadziriro dzokubvisa zvirongwa zvehurumende.
  • Kupa chisakiso chakavakirwa pakodzero: Brown akazarura suo nokuda kwezvimwe zvinoitika zvisingaverengeki zvinobatanidza dziviriro yakaenzana, kubva kurusaruro rwevatano yavanhukadzi kusvikira kuuenzani hweroorano.

Kuva woga, Autonomy, uye Kurudyi Kusingadzorwi: Roe v. Wade (1973)

Zviitiko zvishomanene zvakaparira gakava rinotsungirira zvikuru se . Wade v. . Mhaka yacho yaibatanidza mutemo weTexas uyo wakaputsa kubvisa mimba kuzhinjisa kunze kweizvo zviri madikanwa kuponesa upenyu hwomukadzi. “Jane Roe" (Norma McCorvey) yakadenha mutemo, ichipokana kuti wakaputsa kodzero yake yebumbiro remitemo kuva woga. Dare rapamusorosoro, mumurangariro wakanyorwa naMutongi Harry Blackmun, akabvumirana.

Dare rakataura kuti kodzero yokuva woga, nepo isingadudzwi zvakajeka muBumbiro reMitemo, inowirirana ne Fact Procession Clause yeMitemo ye 144] Amendment. Iyi “nzvimbo dzechivande” pfungwa yakanga yazivikanwa muzviitiko zvapakuvamba zvakadai se [[FLT]] Griswold v. Connecticut [1965]), iyo yakamisa kurambidzwa kwekudzivisa kubereka. Roe akatanga chirongwa chakadzikamiswa chakadzikatidza kudzora kudzora kudzora kwomugariro woutano muutano hwaamai uye upenyu hunobvira, zvichibvumira murairo mukuru gare gare gare.

Kubatsira Kunoita Simba

  • Kuiswa kwemuitiro wakafanira: Roe yakaratidzira kuti Dare raizodzivirira maruramiro anokosha asina kuiswa, richipfuuridzira gamuchidzanwa rakatambanudzwa ku Lochner v. New York (1190] uye mberi Obergefell v. Hodges
  • State vs. Kodzero dzavanhu vamwe navamwe: Mano enyika akaganhurirwa anotonga kuganhurira kubvisa pamuviri, kubvisa dzikamo yesimba kubva kuvaiti vemitemo vehurumende uye kudare rejaji nemunhu.
  • Kuguma nokuparadzana kwezvamatongerwe enyika: Roe yakava nzvimbo inotanhamara muhondo dzokusimbisa uye yakanyandura makumi amakore ekurukurirano pamusoro poukoshi hwakafanira hwehwirudzuro hwedare (]madeko ayo akaguma nokunyanyisa kwechisarudzo mu Dobs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization [2022]).

Kuganhurira Simba Rinodzora: United States neNixon (19974)

Chinonyadzisa chaWatergate chakaisa nheyo yokuti “hapana munhu ari pamusoro pomutemo” kumuedzo wayo unoshamisa zvikurusa. Apo muchuchisi chaiye akatsvaka tepi dzakarekodwa dzekurukurirano dzaPurezidhendi Richard Nixon, Nixon akataura kuti ropafadzo inotambudza [[ akamubvumira kunyima matepi kudzivirira kurukurirano dzapachivande dzapurezidhendi. Dare Rapamusoro, muchisarudzo chinenge chiripo 8=10, rakaramba kutaura ikoko.

Murangariro mukuru weMutongi Warren Burger wakabvuma kuti ropafadzo yechiremera yaivapo nokuda kwechengeteko yenyika kana kuti nhau dzehurumende dzinotapura asi wakataura kuti haingagoni kushandiswa kuvanza ufakazi mukunzvera kwoutsotsi.Dare rakaraira Nixon kubudisa matepi, ayo pakupedzisira akazivisa kubatanidzwa kwake mubutiro ndokutungamirira kukurega kwake basa.

Kubatsira Kunoita Simba

  • Mitauro pachiremera chapurezidhendi: United States v. Nixon yakasimbisa kuti purezidhendi anodzorwa nomuitiro wokutonga uye kuti ropafadzo yechiremera haisati iri yakakwana.
  • Kutarisira kwedare rehurumende: chisarudzo chakasimbisa basa rematare mukusimbisa mutemo woutsotsi mukurwisana navakuru vakuru vanozviisa munzvimbo yakakwirira, kuchigadza muenzaniso wakashandiswa mukunzvera kwapashure uye zviitiko zvokusabvumirana.
  • Kuzvidavirira nokutonga kwomutemo: Kutonga kwakava chinhu chinokosha chehurumende yehurumende yehurumende yehurumende yeAmerica inosarudzwa navanhu, kuchiratidzira kuti kunyange basa rine simba zvikurusa munyika rinofanira kupindura kuchiremera chapamutemo.

Dziviriro yakaenzana nereshiyo yeroorano: Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)

Mhindumupindu yekodzero dzevanhu yakasvika fambiro mberi itsva ne Obergefell v. Hodges, iyo yaidavira kuti vakaroorana vane kodzero huru yokuroorana pasi pe . . . .Bative Programme Claus Claus [ na[FLT:] Nhlangano weDziviridzo ye 1450] wePremence. Mhaka yakabatanidza denho dzinoverengeka dzehurumende kurambidza roorano imwe cheteyo kubva kuMichigan, Ohio, Kentecky, uye Tessee.

Mutongi Anthony Kennedy akanyora murangariro wa 5-4 voruzhinji, achisimbisa kuti “maruramiro okuroora ikodzero huru inogarwa nhaka murusununguko rwomunhu.” Dare rakarangarira kuti kubvisa varoorani vane mitezo mimwe cheteyo yevatano muroorano kwakazvidza chiremera chavo ndokuisa“ kubviswa kwe” kuti Bumbiro remitemo harigoni kushivirira. Chisarudzo chacho chaida kuti nyika dzose dzipe rezinesi reroorano kuvaroorani vane mitezo mimwe cheteyo yevatano uye kuziva roorano dzinoitwa mune dzimwe nzvimbo.

Kubatsira Kunoita Simba

  • Kuiswa kwekodzero dzinokosha: Obergefell yakapfuuridzira gamuchidzanwa reDare rokuziva mwero mitsva yorusununguko pasi peGungano raClaus, kubva kuvandika mu gristold kusonganiro yapedyo mu [[FLT:]Lawrence v. Texas
  • Chisarudzo chenhau chekurukurirano yenyika: kupfurikidza nokugadzikisa mubvunzo wekuenzana kweroorano mubatanidzwa, Dare rakasunungurwa misiyano yetsika yehurumende nechiito chemitemo, zvichibudisa kutsoropodza kubva kuna avo vaisimbisa kuti chinjo dzenzanga dzakadaro dzinofanira kuuya kupfurikidza nemiitiro yehurumende yehurumende inosarudzwa navanhu.
  • Kukakavadzana kunopfuurira pamusoro pebasa rokutonga: Kukamuraniswa 5-4 kwakasimbisa kupesana kwapedyo paDare pamusoro poukuru hwakafanira hwesimba rokutonga (8)kakamu kanopfuurira kuumba ganhuriro yebumbiro remitemo renguva imwe.

Zvimwe Zviratidzo: Kushatisa Dzikamo Yazvino Uno

Kupfuura nyaya idzi dzakavakirwa, zvimwe zvisarudzo zvinoverengeka zvakatapura zvikuru kuparadzirwa kwesimba muUnited States.

Vagari vomuUnited v. Federal Ecommution Commission (2010)

Mu Chisarudzo cheUnited v. FEC, Dare Gurusa rairangarira kuti rusununguko rweFirst Amendment runodzivisa hurumende kuganhurira ndyiko dzezvamatongerwe enyika dzakazvimirira namasangano, mibatanidzwa, uye dzimwe nzanga. Chisarudzo chakadzongonyedza mativi eBipartisan Reformation Act (McCaini-Feald) ndokubvumira kushambadza kusina kuganhurirwa pakushambadzira kwezvamatongerwe enyika, kugogorukira kusabatanidzwa nenhimbe yomutengi.

  • Kushanda pasimba rezvamatongerwe enyika: Vagari vemo vakabatana vakawedzera nomutoo unoshamisa basa remari musarudzo, vachipa vapi navapfumi nefariro dzamasangano apo vaisimudzira itiro hanya pamusoro pepesvedzero yemari pakudzora kwehurumende yedemokrati.
  • Kubatana pakati pekutaura nomurairo: Kutonga kwakakudza dziviriro yeFirst Amendment kumasangano ebhizimisi, kuchinyandura gakava rinopfuurira pamusoro pokuchinja kwenhimbe uye kududzira kweDare kutaura kwezvamatongerwe enyika.
  • [[[FURO:0] Sumo yeMazita:[ [

Shelby County v. Hoker (2013)

Mu Shelby County v. Haker, Dare Gurusa rakaputsa gadziriro huru yeVoting Rights Act ya1965. Chikamu 4 cheChibvumirano chaiva negadziriro yokufukunura iyo yaisarudza kuti iruwai nenharaunda dzine nhau yetsarudzo yedzinza zvinofanira kuwana tendero yehurumende isati yachinja mitemo yavo yokuvhota. Dare, muchisarudzo cha5°4, rakarangarira kuti mutoo wacho wakanga uri usati uri wetsika nemhaka yokuti wakatsamira pamashoko akaregeredzwa kubva muma1960 nama 1970.

Dare Rapamusoro Zvikurusa Nedzikamo Inochinja Yesimba

Nyaya dzakurukurwa pamusoro apa dzinoenzanisira basa guru reDare Rapamusorosoro mukuparadzira simba mukati megadziriro yemitemo yeAmerica. Kupfurikidza nedzidziso dzakadai sehwirudzuro yedare, masimba anorehwa, mutoo wakafanira, uye ropafadzo yechiremera, Dare rakakudziridza nokudzvinyirira chiremera chamamwe mapazu nehurumende. Izvi zvisarudzo hazviiti mukuparadzana.

Uyezve, kudzikamiswa kwesimba hakuchinji. Kugadzirwa kwedare racho kunochinja nokufamba kwenguva, uye nyaya itsva dzinoramba dzichiedza mienzaniso yekare. Somuenzaniso, kudzorwa kweRoe v. Wade muDobs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization (2022) kwakadzorera kudzorwa kwokubvisa pamuviri kunzvimbo, kuchiratidza kuti kunyange zvisarudzo zvagara zvagadziriswa zvikuru zvinogona kuongororwazve. Nenzira yakafanana, mitemo yedare yemisi ichangobva kupfuura iyi pamusoro pesimba resangano rehurumende munhau dzakafanana neWest Virginia v. EPA222)

Kunzwisisa tsinhirano huru pakati peDare Gurusa nemamwe mapazu ehurumende kunokosha nokuda kwomunhu upi noupi anotsvaka kunzwisisa udzori hweAmerica. Bumbiro reMitemo, seizvo Mutongi Mukuru Marshall akacherekedza muMcCulloch, “rinodisa kutsungirira kwamazera anouya, uye, somuuyo, kugadziridzwa kunjodzi dzakasiana - siana dzenhau dzavanhu.” Mitengo yenzvimbo yepasi inopa mirayiridzo nokuda kwekuchinjika ikoko, inopfuurira kuvandudza miganhu yesimba muruwa inoramba iri basa mukufambira mberi.

Kumwe Kurava