Chibvumirano chegumi namana cheMitemo kuBumbiro reMitemo reUnited States idivi rinokosha romutemo unotaura nezvemativi anoverengeka ougari hwemo nekodzero dzevagari vemo. Pakati pegadziriro dzawo dzinokosha zvikurusa iFetametic Protection Clause, chivako chapamutemo chinoraira nyika yose kudzora pasina rusaruro. Iyi ndima yave iri musimboti wehondo dzekodzero dzavagari vemo zvikurusa, ichiumba nzvimbo yepamutemo kwamakore anopfuura 150. Vadzidzisi, vadzidzi, uye nyanzvi dzemitemo, kunzwisisa dziviriro yeSangano yeClassiasciole inokosha kunzwisisa kurondwa kunopfuurira kwekodzero dzavanhu pasi pomutemo weAmerica.

Nheyo Yenhau: Kugadziridzwa uye Kuberekwa kweFirimendeji Yechigumi Negumi

Mubatanidzwa we14 Wemisi yePendeko weKinazinu wakatenderwa muna 1868, mukati meNguva yokugadziridza yakanyongana yakatevera Hondo yavagari vemo. Kugadziridzwa kwakanga kuri mhinduro yakananga kuBlack Codes /s yaipfuudzwa kuMaodzanyemba kuti yaiganhurira zvakakomba rusununguko nekodzero zvevaAmerica vachangobva kusunungurwa veAfrica. Vagadziri veAmperement John Bingham naSenator Jacob Howard. Vaidzi vemitemo yaizodzivisa zvikuru kurwisana neboka ripi neripi neripi ravagari vemo.

Kudzivirira kwakaenzana, pamwe chete neChiteshi cheChibvumirano chaClaus neMaropafadzo kana kuti maImmuniti Claus, zvakarongedzerwa kuputsa chirevo chakaipa cha 1857 Dred Scott v. Sandford chisarudzo, icho chakanga charamba kuva mugari wemo weAfrican America. Chakanangidzirwawo kugovera hwaro hwemitemo yeChibvumirano cheChikodzero chaCivil Act cha 186. Chikamu chaMaganichanzi “Hapana nyika... icharamba munhu upi noupi mukati dziviriro yakaenzana yemitemo” [[FLT] yakafara, yakarongwa kusvika mufambiro nehurumende yomunzvimbomo inobatwa nenzira isingaenzaniswi.

Zvisinei, chipikirwa cheAuncime Detection Claus chakada kuzadzika kwerinenge zana ramakore. Muma1870 na1880, Dare Gurusa rakangodudzira chitsauko chacho, richiganhurira kusvika kwacho kuti chisarudze nenzira yakajeka. Chisarudzo cheDare mu Plecty v. Ferguson [1896] yakatsigira rusaruraganda pasi pe “dzidziso yakaenzana”, ichibvisa nesimba rechikamu chacho nenzira inobudirira. Yaizotorazve maruramiro echikwata chehurumende epakati-20 kuti chimutsigire chikwaniviridzo cheClaus sechishandiso chokubvisa rusaruro.

Kunzwisisa Dziviriro Yakaenzana yaClaus: Dzidziso Nemipimo Yokuhwirudzura

Rugwaro rweUncime Protection Claus rwakapfava nenzira yokunyengera: “Hapana hurumende icha... kuramba kumunhu upi noupi ari musimba rayo dziviriro yakaenzana yemitemo.” Asi Dare Rapamusorosoro rakatanga gadziriro yakaisvonaka yokushandisa chitsama. Nheyo huru ndeyokuti vanhu vari munzvimbo yakafanana vanofanira kubatwa zvakafanana nomutemo, kutoti kana paine ruramiso yakakwana yokubata mitemo. Mumakumi amakore emhaka, Dare ragadza mitsetse mitatu yokunzvera kuyera mativi edare kuti rione mativi ehurumende.

Kunzvera Kwakakomba

Nzvero yakakomba zvikurusa itsika inodzorwa. Inoshanda apo mutemo unoisa vanhu muboka re rakavakirwa paboka re', zvakadai sedzinza, mavambo erudzi, kana kuti shambidziko. Pasi pokusanonzvera, hurumende inofanira kubvumikisa kuti kurongwa kwacho kunobatira fariro yehurumende [ inoumba fariro yehurumende [[[FLT:] uye [[FLT:]] yakaisvoronzeswa [[FLT:]] yakashatisa [[FLT]] zvikuru [[FLT], [i] mitemo inoshatiswa.] inodzosa , inoita kuti iparadzike fariro.

Kuongorora Kunobatanidza

Nzvero dzinoshanda kumapoka akavakirwa pa . na] chirema[]. Pasi pomupimo uyu, kurongeka kunofanira kubatira donzo rehurumende [[[[FLT:]] rakanyanya[[FLT]] uye iva ine chokuita naro kuti isvike donzo iroro. Mupimo uyu wakajekeswa mu [[FLT:] CRAG] v[FLT][FLT][FLD]] [5], idzokorora , iyo yakabvumira vakadzi kutenga pazera ramakore 18 asi 21.

Kuhwirudzura Kwokuva Nechikonzero Chokuva Nemhaka

Horomhiko idzokororo yakarongwa, mupimo unononotswa zvikurusa. Inoshanda kumitemo mizhinjisa yezvemari nenzanga. Pasi pomupimo uyu, kurongwa kunofungidzirwa kuva kwebumbiro remitemo chero bedzi kunowirirana nechakabatana [ kufariro yehurumende [[FLT:]] [[FLT]] inoita kuti ive yoga yoga. Matare haawanzoparadza mitemo pasi pehwaro hunohwirudzurwa, kunyange zvazvo pane zvakasiana, zvakadai sechisarudzo cheDare muna [[FLT:] rGeneral.[FT:] v [FLT]] [FLT]] [5] [96], (196]), iyo yakashairira dziviriro yapamutemo yapamutemo nokuda kwechisododo chevatano neywokwavanhu vose.

Mhaka Dzakakomba dzeDare Dzinoderedza Dziviriro Yakaenzana

Nyaya imwe neimwe inoratidza kuti chitsama chacho chakavapo sei kuti chitaure marudzi matsva orusaruro uye kuti chizadzike chipikirwa charo chokuenzana.

[[FOLT:0] Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

Zvichida dare redzidzo rakakurumbira zvikurusa rakaenzana, Brown v. Board of Education yakarovanya kusarurana kwedzinza muzvikoro zvavose. Dare Rapamusoro rakabatana raidavira kuti “kubatana asi kukaenzana” zvivako zvedzidzo ndi [ zvisina kuenzana [[[FLT:]], nemhaka yokuti kushatisa kunonyadzisa vana vashomanene nenjodzi dzavo dzedzidzo. Chisarudzo ichi chakadzongonyengedza [[FLT: 4.] Pyv. Ferguson[FLT:]]

Lovang v. Virginia (1967)

Mu kuroora vachena v. Virginia, Dare rakarerutsa mitemo yehurumende inorambidza roorano yemadzinza. Virginia rakataura kuti mutemo waro waishanda zvakaenzana kumarudzi ose ari maviri(inorambidza vachena kuroora vachena navasati vari vachena kuroora vachena.] Vanoramba kurangarira ikoko, kuwana kuti donzo romutemo rakanga riri rokuchengeta ukuru hwechichena uye kuti rairemedza maruramiro makuru. [[[FLT:]] Liveng yakasimbisazve kuti dziviriro yakafanana ya Claus inodzivisa mitemo inosundwa nokusarura, kunyange kana inoratidzika kuva inosarurwa papepa.

[[FFL:0] Roe v. Wade[[FLT] [1] (1973) uye Kodzero yokuva woga

Nepo [[NT.] Rusarudzo v. runowanzobatanidzwa neChirongwa chapamakiro Claus namaruramiro okuva woga, Mudziviriro wakaenzana Claus akaita rutivi runotsigira mukurangarira kweDare. Mutongi Ruth Bader Ginsburg gare gare akataura kuti mhaka yacho ingagona kuva yakasarurirwa panzvimbo dzinodzivirira dzakafanana / nokuti mitemo inoganhurira kubvisa mimba inoisa mitoro nenzira yechienzi pavakadzi, inoumba chimiro chekusarura kwevatano. Kunyange zvazvo murangariro weDare muna [FLT]] [FLT]] [3] zvikurukuru [3] mamiriro ezvinhu akatevera [FLT:] Plat] V [FT]

[ United States v. Mhepo (2013)

Mu United States v. Windsor, Dare Gurusa rakaputsa Chikamu 3 cheDefense of Marriage Act (DOMA), icho chinorondedzera roorano soyomurume mumwe nomukadzi mumwe nokuda kwezvinangwa zvehurumende. Dare rakati DOMA yakaputsa kudzivirira kwakaenzana kwekudzivirira kweFindth Amendment (inoshanda kuhurumende yemubatanidzwa weGumbidzo Claus’s Processom of the stitutions). Chisaru chakaziva kuti kusarura kusina mufungo mukurwisana nevakwanyina vorudzi kwakazvidza chiremera chavo nokubatwa kusina kufanira. Yakaisa donzo redare rakatevera mu [[FLT:]

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)

.Obergefell v. Hodges yakasimbisa kuti roorano yakafanana yevatano ikodzero yebumbiro remitemo pasi pezvose zviri zviviri Claus Claus neFederance Production Clause. Dare raidavira kuti kuramba vakwanyina voutevedzani vamwe vorudzi rwokuroorana vane kodzero yokuputsa rusununguko rwavo runokosha uye kuparira “kuvadziko inopfuurira” kuchiremera chavo. Chisarudzo muenzaniso une simba wenzira iyo Mudziviriri Clause anogona kubatanidza nayo mapoka matsva mukati dziviriro yayo, ichiziva kuti“ maruramiro okuroora ndiwo maruramiro anokosha murusununguko rwomunhu."

[ Zviziviso nokuda kwaFair Admassigs v. Harvard uye UNC [2023]

Muchisarudzo chenhau chemisi ichangobva kupfuura iyi, Dare Gurusa rakagumisa nenzira inobudirira kubvuma dzinza mukubvuma kwapakoreji. Dare rakarangarira kuti mapurogiramu okupinda paHarvard neYunivhesiti yeNorth Carolina akaputsa kudzivirira kweMutengi Claus nemhaka yokuti akanga asina nharidzano dzakanangidzirwa zvakakwana uye dzinoyemurika, uye nemhaka yokuti akashandisa rusarurano nomutoo wakaipa mukurwisana navakwidziridziridziri. Nepo Dare risina kubvisa nheyo yokuti mhatsa yedzidzo inogona kuva fariro inogombedzera, rakaisa rumano rusina muenzaniso pakushandiswa kwemipimo yedzinza. Chisarudzo chacho chakanyandura kurukurirano inotyisa pamusoro penguva yemberi yedziviriro yakaenzana mudzidzo yakakwirira uye kupfuura.

Kushandiswa Kwedziviriro Yakaenzana yaClaus muMutemo Wapanguva Yazvino

Kusvika kwaro kunzvimbo dzakawanda dzinoitwa nevanhu, kusanganisira kodzero dzokuvhota, mari yokutsigira dzidzo, ruramisiro yematsotsi, uye mitemo yezvemari.

Kuzivisa Kodzero Neutarisiri Hwokusarudza

Kudzivirira kwakaenzana kwave kuri chishandiso chikuru mumitemo yeID inodenha, kudzorwa, uye ganhuriro pakupinda. Somuenzaniso, mu Shelby County v. Horer [20203], Dare rakarova Chikamu 4 cheRevotion Rights Act, icho chakanga chada nyika dzakati nenhau yetsika dzedzinza kuti iwane tendero yehurumende pamberi pokuchinja mitemo yokuvhotera. Chisarudzo chacho hachina kubatanidza zvakananga dziviriro yakaenzana, asi chakamutsa dziviriro yakaenzana nemhaka yokuti nzira yokupfuudza nayo yakanga yakavakirwa pamashoko ekaredhi. Nguva pfupi yapfuura iyi, Dare rakanyorera [FLD:] rightider, rikabata mu [FFF] Commoctic Active. [2] Chisarudzuro chakakurumbira chamachinziro chakakomba chezvamatongerwe enyika (9])

Ruramisiro Youtsotsi Nezvirango

Dare Rinoyera Dziviriro raMatsotsiwo rinoshanda kugadziriro yedare retsoropodzo. Matare akahwirudzura kutaura kwefungira mano akaipa yedzinza mukusarudzwa kwedare rinobetsera vatongi, achipa zvisarudzo, uye achitongesa. Somuenzaniso, mu Batson v. Kentucky[ (1986), Dare rakaramba kuti kushandisa kwomuchuchisi kwedenho dzokudzivisa denho kubvisa ganhuriro dzapanyuko dzakavakirwa padzinza rinoputsa dziviriro yeSult Protection Claine. Pasinei zvapo nezvisarudzo zvakadaro, zviparadza dzinza zvinopfuurira. Chitsauko chinogovera nzira yemitemo inodenha iyo inotapura nzanga duku zvikuru, kunyange zvazvo kubvumikisa chiziva rusaruro ruchiva pamutemo.

Kushandisa Mari Yedzidzo uye Mari Yechikoro

Nepo Dare rapamusoro-soro risina kuziva dziviriro yakaenzana yehurumende kumaruramiro echikoro anowirirana (ona] San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez, 1973), matare ehurumende akashandisa zvikamu zvakaenzana zvokudzivirira kuti arayire gadziriro dzemari dzinoshandiswa nehurumende. Gungano reSaunicial Protection Claus ichiri kushanda kumiitiro iyo inosarura zvakajeka pakati pavadzidzi pahwaro hwedzinza kana kuti mimwe mipimo inofungidzirwa. Somuenzaniso, mitemo yokuti maruwa echikoro aregiodregitry kana kuti kuti kuti chirango chevadzidzi vemavara evaradio chinogona kudenhwa pasi pechiito.

Kugadziridzwa Kwemari Negarikano

Mitemo mizhinjisa yezvemari yakadai semitemo yokugarwa kwenzvimbo, zvinodikanwa zvebhizimisi, kana kuti mirau yemitero inohwirudzurwa muhwaro hune mufungo, uko kunoreva kuti inodokuva inotsigirwa nguva dzose. Zvisinei, kana mutemo ukadenha boka rinonyumwirwa kana kuti mitoro maruramiro makuru, anoshanda. Somuenzaniso, mitemo inoganhurira betsero dzegarikano kuvagari vatsva, kana kuti iyo inoparira kubatwa kusina kuenzana kwavanhu vakavakirwa pamugariro wavo wokumwe, ingatarisana nokusanonzvera.

Matambudziko Nenharo Dzinopfuurira

Pasinei nokuti paine simba raClaus rakaenzana, pachiri kunetsa zvikuru nokuti urudzi, rusaruro rwevarume nevakadzi, uye kusaenzana kwemari zviri kuramba zvichikanganisa vanhu vokuAmerica.

Chiito Chinosimbisa Nechiito Chedzinza

Vatendi venhau dzeFair Adgissis vane nharo dzakasimba pamusoro pokuti Mutevedzeri Wedziviriro weSangano Claus anobvumidza here kurangarirwa kupi nokupi kwedzinza mugadziriro yavose. Vamwe vanotaura kuti rugwaro runofanira kuva rusina ruvara (kureva kuti hurumende haitongofaniri kushandisa rudzi sechisakiso, kunyange kupedza rusaruro rwapakare. Vamwe vanoita nharo kuti chikamu chakarongwa pakuvamba kudzivirira mapoka mashoma uye kuti matanho iwayo anoshanda ari madikanwa kuwana kuva nomwero. Iyi mirangariro sezvingabvira ichava pakati pezvinoitika zvedziviriro zvakaenzana munguva yemberi, kubatanidza purogiramu dzakasiana-pakati mumabasa, kuva neapoka, kuranga, uye unyanzvi.

Kuzivikanwa Nevarume Nevakadzi uye Kurara Navo

Pashure pa Obergefell na [FLT :2] Bostock v. Clayton County [2020].

Kuchengeta Mitemo Yakakurumbira Nokuwana Mitemo Yokushatisa

Vatsigiri vemitemo yezvibvumirano zvemavhoti vanotaura kuti vanodzivisa kubiridzira ndokuvimbisa perero yesarudzo; vashori vanotaura kuti vanozvidza nomutoo usingaenzaniswi vavhoti vashomanene, vachiputsa matare eFederal Detection Claus. Makurukota akakamurana panhau idzi, nokutsigira mitemo yemaID yorumano muhwirudzuro hwakarurama uye mimwe kuirova serusaruraganda. Kukakavadzana kwacho hakutongogadziki, zvikurukuru sezvo nyika dzinopfuurira kusvitsa mitemo yesarudzo itsva.

Kusaenzana Kwemari Nekodzero Dzinokosha

Mumwe wemibvunzo inokakavadzana zvikurusa ndewokuti kana Applime Protection Claus ichida hurumende kugovera mwero mudukusa wechengeteko yemari − yakadai sokuwana pokugara, tarisiro youtano, kana kuti dzidzo. Dare Rapamusoro rakaramba richirangarira kuti Bumbiro reMitemo harivimbisi maruramiro akanaka, asi dzimwe nyanzvi netsiuro dzinotaura kuti kusaenzana kwakakomba kwezvemari kumene kunoputsa chipikirwa chemashoko chedziviriro yakaenzana. Aya mashoko akawana maruramiro mumatare ehurumende asi anoramba asingabviri kubudirira pamwero yehurumende.

mhedziso

Kudzivirira Kunowirirana kwe 144th Amendment kunoramba kuri pfundo remutemo weAmerica wekodzero dzevanhu. Kubva pakurwisa kugumisa kuzivikanwa kwokuenzana kwemitemo yeroorano, chitsauko chacho chave chiri chinjo yokuchinja kwenzanga. Kunyange zvazvo mabasa acho asati apera. Sezvo zvimiro zvitsva zvokusarura zvinobuda uye sekunzwisisa kuenzana kwechimuko, matare achapfuurira kutsanangura zvinoreva nyika kuti irambe “kudzivirirwa kwakaenzana kwemitemo." Vadzidzisi navadzidzi, vachibatanidzwa nechikamu ichi, vanopa mukana mukuru wokuongorora mipimo yeruramisiro, miganhuro yomutemo, uye kurwisa kupfuurira nokuda kwenhau yakakwana. Kunzwisisa nhau yacho, dzidziso, uye kukumbirwa kwepasero kwepanguva inoda kubatanidzwa mukurukurirano ine revo.

Kuti uverengezve, funga nezvokuongorora zvinhu zvinotevera: