Hwaro Hwemagariro eAmerica

Kukamukana kwechiremera pakati pehurumende yenyika nenyika ichinhu chinorondedzera chigadziko chegadziriro yezvamatongerwe enyika yeUnited States. Ichi chirongwa, chinozivikanwa sechihurumende, chinoumba uchangamire huviri apo mwero mumwe nomumwe wehurumende une nzvimbo yayo imene yesimba, chekesi, uye mitoro. Kunzwisisa iri dzikamo inokosha kwete bedzi nokuda kwavadzidzi vomutemo webumbiro remitemo asi nokuda kwomunhu upi noupi anotsvaka kunzwisisa kuti mitemo yedzidzo, yezvoutano, uye chengeteko yavose inoumbwa sei. Bumbiro remitemo reU.S., sezvinotsanangurwa namazana maviri amakore renhau neJurispracynce, rinopa purani yeukama ihwo hunooma kunzwisisa.

Murangariro Wouchangamire Hwomubatanidzwa

uchangamire hunorondedzera gadziriro umo hurumende mbiri dzakasiana dzinoshandisa chiremera panzvimbo imwe cheteyo yapasi navagari vemo. MuUnited States, hurumende yehurumende ine masimba akaganhurirwa, anorongwa, nepo hurumende dzinochengeta chiremera chakafara, chisiri chehurumende. Iyi gadziriro yakarongedzerwa noune, kudzivirira rusununguko kupfurikidza nokuparadzanisa simba uye kudzivisa uchangamire hupi nohupi kuva mukuru mukuru. Muuyo idzvinyiriro huru yakavapo zvinoshamisa chifo chokuvamba.

Mavambo Enhau: Kubva Pakubvumirana Kusvika Kubumbiro Remitemo

Chinoitika chavagadziri vemibatanidzwa pasi peNhevedzo dzeConfederation (1781-1789) chakavapwisa kuti hurumende yapakati yakaneta yaisagona kutungamirira nenzira inobudirira dziviriro yorudzi, kutengeserana, kana kuti ukama hwokunze. Convention yeConstitution ya1787 yakatsvaka kugadzira hurumende yakasimba zvikuru yerudzi nepo yaichengeta kuzvitonga kwenyika. Chigadzikiso chakanga chiri gadziriro yesimba rinogoverwa nerakakamukana. Chisaririra hachigoni kubvumirana pane zvisina kufanira (kudzoka kwechikuru (chitima) uye maSuntrochete-FOT - Factives [3].[3]

Bumbiro reMitemo pacharo rakapa masimba chaiwo kuhurumende yehurumende yehurumende (mutoo, kuumba mari, kudzora zvokutengeserana zvenyika, kuzivisa hondo) uye kuchengetwa kwedzimwe dzose kunyika. Tenth Amendment, yakasimbiswa muna 1791, yakasimbisa zvakajeka ichi chibvumirano: “Masimba asina kupiwa United States neBumbiro reMitemo, kana kuti kurambidzwa naro kuUnited States, anochengeterwa kuUnited States, kana kuti vanhu.” Iri ndiro pfundo remitemo rouchangamire hwehurumende.

Uchangamire Huviri Huri Mumuitiro: Gadziriro Yamadzimambo Akaparadzana

Mumutemo wemitemo weAmerica, mashoko okuti “uchangamire hwehurumende” anoonekawo mumashoko omutemo woutsotsi. Mutezo weChikamu Chiviri cheD5 Amendment unodzivisa munhu kutongwa kaviri nokuda kwemhosva imwe cheteyo nechiremera chimwe chetecho. Zvisinei, nemhaka yokuti hurumende nehurumende imwe neimwe izviremera zvakaparadzana, zvose zviri zviviri zvinogona kupomera munhu nokuda kwechiito chimwe chetecho kana kuita izvozvo zvichiputsa mutemo wehurumende. Somuenzaniso, mapurisa anoshandisa simba rakawandisa angatarisana nekodzero dzose mbiri dzehurumende uye kuuraya pasina kuisa njodzi mbiri mbiri. Dzidziso iyi yakasimbiswa neDare gurusa rakadai se [[FLT: 0]. Alabama[FLD] [FFF:] [1] [18] [18] uye anoramba rutivi rwedare remitemo yehurumende.

Masimba Anotonga Nyika: Akaiswa Musimba, Akashandiswa, uye Anoberekwa Nawo

Kunzwisisa izvi zvikamu kunokosha mukunzwisisa ganhuriro dzechiito chorudzi.

Masimba Akavapo

Masimba akarongwa ndiwo ayo akarongwa zvakajeka muBumbiro reMitemo, zvikurukuru muChikamu I, Chikamu 8. Chinokosha zvikurusa chinobatanidza:

  • Simba ku mutero uye rinopedzerwa nokuda kwegarikano yavose.
  • Simba ku [[FLT: 0] raibatanidza nyika nekutengeserana kwokumwe.
  • Simba [[TS.0] rinozivisa hondo [ ndokusimudza hondo.
  • Simba remari yemari [ uye rinodzora ukoshi hwayo.
  • Simba rokutanga mahofisi eposvo uye migwagwa.
  • Simba rokupa zvibvumirano uye kodzero dzekodzero dzepamutemo.

Aya masimba, kunyange zvazvo akaganhurirwa, akadudzirwa zvakafara. Commerce Claus, zvikurukuru, yave iri nhandare yehondo yokurondedzera kusvika kwechiremera chehurumende. Kubva ku Gibbons v. Ogden [1824] [1824] ku [FLT] Wickard v. Filburn [1942] ku [FLT] United States v. Lopez [195]] [195]), Dare rine oslated read neraving.

Masimba Akashandiswa Nezvakafanira uye Zvakafanira

Chikamu chokupedzisira cheChikamu I, Chikamu 8 chinopa simba “rokuita Mitemo yose ichafanira uye yakafanira kuendesa kuMasimba achangobva kududzwa.” Ichi chitsama, chinozivikanwa sedinect neFaith neFanant Claus (kana kuti Elastic Clause), chinobvumira kuti Paramende iise mitemo inotenderwa nemasimba anorongwa. Mhaka yetsika i MCulloch v. Maryland[FLT:] [18], umo Mutongi Mukuru John Marshall akataura nenzira yakakurumbira kuti “simba remutero rinobatanidza simba rokuparadza uye kuti Hurumende ingareva kusaita donzo zvakajeka kuti donzo pamutemo. Ichi chisarudzo chakasimubatanidzwa chamasimba anotsigirwa kuumba chisikwa, mamwe masangano ehurumende, uye mamwe masangano akawanda.

Simba Romuzvarirwo

Masimba okuberekwa nawo ndiwo ayo ari enyika ipi neipi inotonga, kunyange kana asingadudzwi zvakajeka muBumbiro reMitemo. Masimba aya anowirirana zvikurukuru nenhau dzokumwe nechengeteko yenyika, kubatanidza simba rokuwana nyika, kufambidzana, uye kudzivirira rudzi. Dare Gurusa rakaziva masimba okuberekwa nawo muzviitiko zvakadai se United States v. Curtiss-Wright Export Corp. [1936], iro raidavira kuti hurumende yehurumende ine “simba rinowana kubva muidi rokuti United States inyika inova rudzi rwakaisvonaka pakati pamarudzi.”

Masimba Ehurumende: Mamishinari Akachengetwa, Mapurisa, uye Kuwirirana Kwenguva Dzose

Dare reThith Amendment isimba rebumbiro remitemo rechiremera chehurumende. Kupfuura masimba akachengetwa, mamiriro enyika anoshandisa masimba akafara [[FLT:](8)] zviremera zvokuberekwa nazvo zvokudzivirira utano, chengeteko, tsika, uye garikano yavagari vemo vavo. Ikoku kunobatanidza mitemo pamusoro poutsotsi, utano hwavanhu, kushandiswa kwevhu, uye kuisa tsvina.

Mienzaniso Yemasimba Ehurumende Egamuchidzanwa

  • Tsamba:[ nyika dzinogadza mipimo yezvidzidzo, kuronga zvikoro zvehurumende, uye kudzora magwaro okunyorera mudzidzisi.
  • transportation: United States inovaka nokuchengeta migwagwa mikuru, motokari dzinonyoresa, uye marezenisi okuchaira.
  • Charechis: United States rezinesi rezvokurapa, rinodzora misika yeinishuwarenzi, uye rinoshandisa mapurogiramu eMedicaid.
  • Mutemo Wemhuri:[ unodzora roorano, chatanuro, kodzero yokuchengeta mwana, uye kurera mwana.
  • [ Mutemo worurimi: Ruzhinjisa rwekurovererwa utsotsi runoitika mumutemo wehurumende.
  • Sarudzo:[ United States inodzora sarudzo dzehurumende, hurumende, uye dzomunzvimbomo mukati memiganhu yebumbiro remitemo.

Simba Riripo: Chiremera Chinogoveranwa

Dzose dziri mbiri hurumende dzomubatanidzwa nedzehurumende dzinogona kushandisa masimba akati panguva imwe cheteyo. aya masimba akabatana anobatanidza:

  • Simba romutero (kune dzimwe nyika harigoni kubhadhara zvishandiso zvomubatanidzwa pasina kubvumirana).
  • Simba rokukwereta mari.
  • Simba rokugadza matare.
  • Simba rokuhaya mabhangi namasangano.
  • Simba rokugadza nokushandisa mitemo kazhinji kazhinji.

Apo mitemo yehurumende nehurumende inorwisana, Supremacy Claus (Artle VI, Claus 2) inozivisa mutemo iwoyo womubatanidzwa. Iyi dzidziso ye ] dandaro [ inogona kuratidzirwa (Konvo inotaura zvakajeka kuti mutemo womubatanidzwa unokurira mutemo wenyika) kana kuti unorehwa (apo mutemo wenyika unodzongonyedza nevavariro dzomubatanidzwa kana kuti unoisa munda chose chose).

Kushandiswa kwaClaus Ane Mukurumbira uye Kuzvidzwa

Supremacle inosimbisa Bumbiro reMitemo, mitemo yehurumende yakaita kuti izivikanwe, uye zvibvumirano se “Mutemo mukurusa weNyika.” Ikoku hakudzimi mutemo wehurumende asi kunouderedza. Apo rwisano inomuka, matare anofanira kusarudza kana mutemo wehurumende uchisunungurwa. Dare Rapamusoro rakakudziridza zvirongwa zvinoverengeka:

  • Kusunungurwa: Congress inotaura donzo rayo rokubvisa mutemo wehurumende mumutemo.
  • [[FLT: 0] Yakapinzwa pasati yatemwa: murairo wehurumende paunenge wakapararira kwazvo zvokuti “unopa munda,” hausiyi nzvimbo nokuda kwechiito chehurumende (kusunungurwa kwemumunda), kana kuti apo mutemo wehurumende unomira semhinganidzo kuzvinangwa nevavariro dzehurumende (kusunungurwa kwemubatanidzwa).

Muenzaniso wakatanhamara ndi Arizona v. United States (2020), uko Dare rakarova zvirongwa zvinoverengeka zveArizona S.B. 1070 mutemo wokubuda nemhaka yokuti mutemo wokupinda munyika waibata munda uye gadziriro dzehurumende dzinorwisana nezvinoiswa nokuchengetwa kwemitemo. Nenzira idikanwi, mu WYT] v. Levine [2009]), Dare rakaramba kutaura kuti tendero yechiratidzo chemirimo yapa yapambwa kumutemo kutorerwa kutoto, ichisimbisa kuti jambwa haisiri yokureruki.

Chiratidzo cheNgozi muFederal-States

  • McCulloch v Maryland (1819): Dare rakataura kuti Maryland raisagona kutera Bhangi reChipiri reUnited States nemhaka yokuti “simba remutero rinobatanidza simba rokuparadza,” uye nyika hadzigoni kudzongonyedza mabasa ehurumende apamutemo.
  • Gibbons v. Ogden (1824): Dare rakarondedzerwa zvikuru kuti “kubatanidza pakati penyika dzinoverengeka” kubatanidza kufamba nengarava, kuputsa chikepe chemvura cheNew York nekusimbisa ukuru hwehurumende pakutengeserana kwenyika.
  • United States v. Lopez (1995): kwenguva yokutanga muanodokusvika makumi matanhatu amakore, Dare rakaganhurira chiremera cheChemmerce Claus yeChorce kupfurikidza nokushandisa chiTractimendiso cheGun-Free School Act, kuchitonga icho kutakura pfuti munzvimbo yechikoro hakuna kutapura zvikuru kutengeserana kwenyika.
  • NFIB v. Sebelius (202): Dare rakatsigira murairo womunhu oga weAffordicable Care Act sekushandiswa kwesimba rinobhadhara asi rakaparadza gadziriro inoda hurumende kufutunura Médicaid sechisipitiso chisiri chehurumende.
  • [[NT:0] Murphy v. NCAA (2018): Dare rakarova Professional and Ametur Sports Providual Providection Act (PASPA), richifunga kuti rakaputsa dzidziso inorwisana nemirairo inodzivisa kupfurikidza nokurambidza migariro mukubhejera zvemitambo. Ichi chisarudzo chakasimbisa nheyo yokuti hurumende yehurumende haigoni kuraira gadziriro yemitemo yehurumende.

Nhau Dzazvino Uno Munzanga

Zvikamu zvazvino zvinoratidzira mhindumupindu inopfuurira youchangamire huviri.

Kutarisira Utano Nechiito Chokutarisira Chisingatani Kushatiswa

Dare reACA rekuwedzera reMedicaid rakaparira muenzaniso mutsva. Mu NFIB v. Sebelius, Dare rakatonga kuti Congress yaisagona kutyisidzira kubvisa [ yose yehurumende Medicaid kana nyika dzakaramba kukudza kumanikidza. Zvisinei, dzinosarudza kukudza dzaigona kuwana mari yakawedzerwa. Nhasi, basa rokuwedzera nyika uye dzimwe nyika dzinopesana riripo, zvichitungamirira kubvisa mativi adzo. Iyi inosimudzira kubatanidzwa kwehurumende yakavhengana nokudzvinyirirwa pamusoro pezvidzoreso.

Kutama uye Kumanikidzwa Kwehurumende

Kuchengetwa kwokubatanidza ibasa romubatanidzwa, asi maruwa akaedza kubetsera kana kuti kuisa. Mitemo yakafanana neArizona’s S.B. 1070 neTexas yakadenhwa. Dare Gurusa mu] Anova neArizora v. United States yakatsigira chiremera chehurumende asi yakasiya nzvimbo yebatira pamwe yehurumende mune dzimwe nharaunda (umr., inozivisa zviremera zvehurumende pamusoro pevaeni vatorwa). Nguva pfupi yapfuura, nharo pamusoro pe “maguta anodzorwa pamutemo uye ganhuriro dzehurumende pamusoro pekudzo yokutama yapamutemo yehurumende yakapfuurira kuedza zviremera zvehurumende. Vatongi vanorwisana nedzidziso, vanobva mugadziriro yakadzika [FLT] mugadziriro dzeUnited States [3].[3]

Kudzorwa Kwemhoteredzo Nesimba reHurumende

Mitezo inowanzoshanda semarabhoratori okuedza mumiitiro yemhoteredzo. Somuenzaniso, California yakagadza mipimo yemotokari yakatsiga kupfuura mutemo wehurumende pasi peReconsease Air Act. Vatarisiri veTrump vakaedza kubvisa kuti mubato wemouse, uye vadzore vaBiden vakaudzorera. Mu Massachusetts v. EPA[FLT] [2001] [2007] [CUUP], Dare rakaramba richitaura kuti EPA raiva nechiremera chokudzora magasi anodziyamura magasi emoreji pasi pe-mouse Act. United States yakaunzawo kutaura kwavose kwesimba pamusoro pezvirongwa zvesimba nokuda kwemigumisiro yemamiriro okunze, uye Dare renhau renyika yose rakapindira kana kutaura kwakadaro kubviswa nomutemo. [FT]

Kunyoreswa Kwemitemo uye Mutemo Wehurumende

Pasinei zvapo nokurongwa kwehurumende kwembanje sechikamu chinodzorwa, nhamba inokura yenyika yakanyoresa pamutemo mishonga nenhandaro. Hurumende yehurumende yakadzivisa zvikuru kuongorora matare ehurumende (pasi peCole Memoness nenhungamiro inotevera), asi nzvimbo yepamutemo inoramba ine njodzi. Rabaker-parerahr-andendment[ yakadzivisa Dhipatime reRuracti yemari kuti idzoredze mitemo yezvemari yembanjero, asi inofanira kuvandudzwa gore negore. Iyi nzvimbo inoenzanisira zvakajeka mukahanya pakati pechirambiso nehurumende nemvumo yetenderongerwo yenhau inopesana ingagona kuchinjwa nokuchinja nokuiswa kwemitengo yehurumende.

Kodzero Dzokubereka Nadzo

Chisarudzo cheDare Gurusa mu . Jackson Vakadzi vaStyle Health Organization [202]) chakatendeuka Roe v. Wade[ uye kudzorera nhau yemiraudzo yokubvisa pamuviri kunyika. Ikoku kwakatungamirira kunzvimbo yakakamukana zvikuru: dzimwe nyika dzakagadza pedyo nezhenero, nepo dzimwe dzakaparira dziviriro huru. Kurwisana kwapamuuyo wepashure (eg., pamusoro pekuwana kubvisa mimba kupfurikidza nerwendo rwechinyakare) kwakamutsidzirazve mibvunzo pamusoro pemiganhuro yehurumende. Ikoku kwakatungamirira kusimba rezvokudzo, Clauslaus, uye maImme. [Frometic All]

Dzidziso Inorwisana Nemirayiro

Chinotangira simba rehurumende idzidziso inorwisana nemirairo: hurumende yehurumende haigoni kumanikidza hurumende kuti dziite kana kuti ipedzise gadziriro dzehurumende. Iyi nheyo yakatangwa mu New York v. United States, apo Dare rakaputsa mutemo wehurumende waida kuti nyika dzitore zita retsvina inochepesa. Yakasimbiswazve mu Primpz v. United States (1997), iyo yakaderedza gadziriro dzeBrady Hand Violet Depalm Act Acts Act yakaraira kuti mutemo unoda kuti uite magariro ehurumende nemutemo womunzvimbomo zvisaidzo kunzvera mugariro wekare. Chitendero chezvamatongerwe enyika chinodzivirira kuzvidavirira mugariro wavakuru vakuru nechiremera chiremera. Zvisinei, United States States [FFFoct:] (197]) kupfurikidza nokupfumisa mamiriro ezvinhu anodzo dzinodzo dzinodzorwa zvikuru.

Kubatira pamwe neGrants-in-Aid

Kupfuura rwisano, hurumende dzehurumende nedzehurumende kazhinji kazhinji , uye ngwavaira zvinoshanda. Mugadziriro yezvipo zvemari nepurogiramu dzinobatanidzwa. Mari inofambiswa kunzvimbo nokuda kwemigwagwa, dzidzo (g., Tittut Ipa), utano hwavanhu vose (g., MEdicaid), uye njodzi. Zvikamu zvinobvumirana kutevera mipimo yakati yehurumende. Iyi hurumende inobatira pamwe, pane dzimwe nguva inonzi “marobhoroma, mativi ose euchangamire, . Vatsoropote kuti ibvumire hurumende kudzora masimba ayo anopfuura masimba ayo anonyorwa. Vanoitsigira senzira nzira inoshanda kuzvinetso zvenyika apo nyika inodzorwa. Vatsi vanoirangarira kuti iko. Courtism yakaisa miganhuro, semimwe inoisa miganhuro, [VFoct:] [5]

Mugumo: Kukakavadzana Kusingaperi Kwouchangamire Hwoumambo Hwomubatanidzwa

Ukama pakati pamasimba ehurumende nehurumende hahuna kumira; hunochinja nenzvimbo dzezvamatongerwe enyika dzechizvarwa chimwe nechimwe nedudziro dzokutonga. Vagadziri varongedzeri vegadziriro youmambo huviri kuti vadzivirire rusununguko nokusimudzira udzori hunobudirira, asi vakagadzirawo gadziriro inokoka kukurukurirana nokukakavadzana kusingaperi. Kuvambira pahondo dzapakuvamba pamusoro peNational Bank kuhondo yezvoutano, kubuda munyika, uye kubvisa mimba, dzikamo yechiremera zvinoramba zvichirwiwa. Kunzwisisa nheyo dzemitemo nedzinorehwa namasimba, Sunth Amecreced Remeter, Sumetic Claus End, uye kurwisana nedzidziso inodzorwa kwezvokudzorwa kwezvitoko. Sezvichinjowo mitsetse pakati pezvikamu zvenyika nezvinogara zviri zvamagariro.

Nokuda kwokuravazve, bvunza [FLT] Custitution Ansitition nokuda kwokunzvera kwapamutemo kwechikamu chimwe nechimwe, [[[FLT]][FLT]][FLT]Confect Information Institute yeUNICES[[FLT:]][FLT]], uye Dare rapamusoro renhau radudzwa pamusoro apa kupfurikidza [[FLT:][FLT]][FLT]]