Pfungwa yemuitiro wakafanira womutemo inomira seshongwe inorondedzera hurumende inosarudzwa navanhu yeAmerica. Inopfuura muitirowo zvawo wapamutemo, inomirira kuzvipira kukuru kwenzanga kukururama, kurangarira, uye chiremera chomunhu mukurwisana nesimba guru rehurumende. Iyi rwendo kubva pavimbiso yehurumende muEngland ye13-pakati pechiNgezi kusvikira kuidzo ine simba guru, ine mhatsa yakawanda muAmerica inozivisa kurwisa kupfuurira kwerudzi kukwanisira kwaro ndokuchengeta zvikomborero zvorusununguko. Kunzwisisa iyi mhindumupindu inokosha nokuda kwokunzwisisa kuti dziviriro dzapamutemo dzakavakwa sei nomutoo wokungwarira, dzakaitwazve nokutyisa, uye kupfuudzirwazve kuti dzisvikidze zvinodikanwa nezvinodikanwa zvenzanga zvinogara zviri pakati pe 21 nepakati pemaain.

Mavambo Akadzama Echipikirwa: Kubva Pakuzvidzora Kuenda Kuchitupa Chekodzero Dzakanaka

Mazita egadziriro yakafanira anovamba zvikuru kwazvo paRunnymede muna 1215, umo vakuru vakuru vanopandukira veEngland vakagombedzera Mambo John kuisa chisimbiso chake ku Magna Carta. Nepo zvikurukuru chibvumirano chorugare chichitaura nezvezvichemo chaizvo zvenhau, zvitsama zvayo zvisingaperi zvikurusa zvaiva nembeu dzehurumende yebumbiro remitemo. Chakazivisa kuti hapana munhu akasununguka aigona kubatwa, kuiswa mutorongo, kana kuti kudzingwa "kunze norutongeso rwapamutemo rwavaenzani vake kana kuti nomutemo wenyika."

Kwamazana amakore, iyi nheyo yakagara isingatsivi kutozosvikira pakuvamba kwezana ramakore rechi 17, apo Sir Edward Coke, mutongi anotyisa weEngland, akamutsa Magna Carta muhondo dzake mukurwisana nechiremera choumambo. Coke akataura kuti "mutemo wenyika" waireva chimwe chinhu chakananga: wakavimbisa kusvika kumatare avose emitemo uye kunamatira kumiitiro yapamutemo. Iyi rondedzero yakapesvedzera zvikuru vagari vomuAmerica, avo vakazviona savagari venhaka veidzivisi dzekodzero dzekare dzechiNgezi. Rudzi 1628 Rurado neChirungu cheRevoindero cheRegions Coult yakabatanidzazve dziviriro kukuita chiito chomutemo chinodzvinyirira, kubatanidza maruramiro omutemo kukumbira nokudzivirira pakurwisana neutsinye nechirango.

Mumaruwa eAmerica, muitiro wakafanira wakaumbwa mutsika yokutonga kwapakuvamba. Massachusetts Body of Liberales (1641) ichinyorwa chenyika, chinovimbisa kuti upenyu hwomunhu ari wose, rusununguko, uye zvinhu zvaigona bedzi kutapurwa ku "nenyuko yavamwe vomutemo weNyika unosimbisa zvimwe chetezvo. Izvozvi zvakaratidzira kuzvipira kwaPuritan kutonga nomutemo, kwete navanhu. Kushatiswa pamusoro poMutengi nemhindumupi, uye manyukunyuko ebetsero munguva yapamberi pemhindumupindu zvakanga zviri muitiro mukuru wokunyunyuta. Vagari vanoramba "Mutero pasina kumirira" uye kushandiswa kwematare echinzvimbo chakashata, izvo zvinoshanda pasina kusangana. Kuzivisa kwoKuzvisunungura kumene idiviro ibhuku rokuputsa, zvikurukuru nokuda kwemazarusarudzo nokuda kwenhau dzakaitwa naMambo aMambo akawanda."

Pashure pokuzvimirira, vagadziri veConstitution vaidavira kuti hurumende yenyika ine masimba akaganhurirwa, akaverengwa, haina kutyisidzira rusununguko. Ikoku kwakabvumikisa kukanganisa. Anti-Federalist, vachiraira Bill of Rights semamiriro ekodzero, vakataura kuti zvibvumikiso zvakanyorwa ndizvo bedzi nheyo yakachengeteka yorusununguko. James Madison akapindura kupfurikidza nokunyora Bill of Rights, inobatanidza Find Namesion: "Hapana munhu... achanyiwa upenyu, rusununguko, kana kuti zvinhu, pasina muitiro wakafanira womutemo." Chitsama ichi chakashanda bedzi kuhurumende yehurumende yehurumende, asi chakasimbisa nheyo inokosha yokuti riphabliki idzva ringasungwa nomupimo mukuru weruramisiro.

Kugadziridzwa Kwechishanu Nedziviriro Dzako

Dare reChibvumirano raS (Gassion Claus Procesme) reFindment yeFindrefem rinoshanda mukuvhara nedzimwe dziviriro dzakananga mukati mechirongwa kugadzira nhoo huru nokuda kwavanhu vakatarisana nesimba rehurumende. Ivimbiso yokururama kwetsika, kuva nechokwadi chokuti hurumende isati yatora upenyu hwomunhu, rusununguko, kana kuti chinhu, inofanira kutevera mitemo yakagadzwa yepamutemo ndokugovera mukana une revo wokunzwika.

  • [[FLT: 0] Mutongo Mukuru: Nokuda kwemhaka dzakakomba dzomubatanidzwa, Findrement inoda kupa mhaka kana kuti kupomera mhaka kunoitwa nedare guru rinobetsera vatongi, kuva nechokwadi chokuti pane chikonzero chingabvira chokupfuurira kutongwa.
  • Kudzivirirwa Kwokudzivisa Kuparwa Kwechine Chinoitika: Vanhu havagoni kutongwa kaviri nokuda kwemhosva imwe cheteyo, kuchidzivisa hurumende kushandisa pfuma yayo huru kunetsa kana kuti kuderedza mupomerwi.
  • Kudzivirira Kupesana Nekuzvitonga: Kodzero yakakurumbira yokuramba chinyararire inovimbisa kuti hakuna munhu anogona kumanikidzirwa kuva chapupu chinozvipomera amene. Iyi dziviriro, yakavakirwa mumutemo wavose, inoramba mitoo yebvunzurudzo uye inoisa mutoro wokubvumikisa chose chose pakukwirira.
  • Kutora: `Nor ichatorwa nokuda kwokushandiswa kwavose, pasina muripo wakarurama." Chitsama ichi chinoganhurira zvakananga simba rehurumende renzvimbo yakakurumbira, chichida kubhadharwa kwakarurama apo chinhu chinotorwa nokuda kwamabasa avose.

Idzi gadziriro shanu dzakajeka dzakabatanidzwa pamwe chete nevimbiso inopfuura dzose yomuitiro wakafanira, ichiumba gadziriro yakasimba nokuda kworusununguko rwomunhu oga. Dare Rapamusoro nguva dzose rakadudzira aya mashoko akafara kuva nechokwadi chokushanda kwawo munhambo yazvino uno.

Mutezo Wechigumi Nechina: Kuwedzera Ngowani KuUnited States

Bill of Rights yapakuvamba yakadzoresa bedzi hurumende yehurumende yehurumende. Ikoku kwakasimbiswa neDare rapamusorosoro mu Barron v. Baltimore (133), umo Mutongi Mukuru John Marshall akadavira kuti Fift Amendment haina kushanda kuhurumende kana kuti hurumende dzomunzvimbomo. Kusaruramisira kunotyisa kwouranda uye hondo yeChipulgariti yakaparira mamiriro ezvinhu akaganhurirwa. Pashure pehondo yehondo yakaputsa iyi yakaganhurirwa. Gamendendi reReconstantionments, zvikurukuru FOUT]FENT mentimentist Amend [1868]), zvikurukuru kushandura murayiro weAmerica.

Chikamu Chimwe cheMitemo ye 144th Amendment chine zvitsama zvitatu zvinotsoropodza: Maropafadzo kana kuti maImmuniti Claus, Accolasle Procession, uye Kudzivirira kwakaenzana Claus. Mutezo waMabasa pano Claus unoratidzira weshanu asi unotungamirirwa pamitemo: "... uyewo Hurumende ipi neipi hainganyimi munhu upi noupi woupenyu, rusununguko, kana kuti zvinhu, pasina muitiro wakafanira womutemo." Kushandiswa kwa "person" panzvimbo pe" kwakanga kuri chisarudzo chamaune, chaiitirwa kuva nechokwadi chokuti varanda vachangobva kusunungurwa navamwe vagari vose vaizodzivirirwa.

Dzidziso Yokusawirirana

Mu Hosworse-Imba (1873), Dare Rapamusorosaidzosa denho inoparadza kuMaropafadzo kana kuti maImmunion Claus, achiirava nenzira inobudirira muBumbiro reMitemo kwerinopfuura zana ramakore. Ikoku kwakasiya Nhengo dzeCHEDS yeCUS Claus semotokari huru yokudzivirira maruramiro makuru pakushanda kwehurumende. Izvozvo zvakavamba kunonoka, chinoitika nomuitiro we muitiro we [FLT].[FLT]]]

Mubvunzo mukuru wakanga uri: Ndimativi api eBill of Rights anokosha kwazvo zvokuti iwo ari "anorangarira pfungwa yorusununguko rwakarairwa"? Palko v. Connecticut (1937]), Justice Cardozo akataura kuti kodzero idzodzo bedzi "dzakavakirwa mumagamuchidzanwa nehana zvavanhu vedu kuti dzinofanira kurangarirwa sedzinokosha" dzinofanira kubatanidzwa. Iyi nzira yakawana pamusoro poMutongi Hugo Black Refectionedment kuti Reference ye14th yakanga ichiitirwa kubatanidza Bill of Rights comburence (chinosero).

Mumakumi amakore anoverengeka akatevera, Dare Rapamusoro Zvikurusa rakabatanidzwa nenzira yakarongwa inoda kuva gadziriro huru iri yose yeBill of Rights mukurwisana nenyika.

  • Gitlow v. New York (1925): First Amendment (rusununguko rwokutaura).
  • [FLT] Nearb v. Minnesota (1931):[[FL:3] First Amendment (rusununguko rwezvinobudisa nhau).
  • Cantwell v. Connecticut[[FL:2] (1940): First Amendment (kushandiswa kwakasununguka kworudzidziso).
  • - v. Board of Education (1947): First Amendment (chitsama chakagadzwa).
  • [[FLT]] Mapp v. Ohio (1961): menduro yechina (kutonga kwechiNgezi).
  • Gideon v. Wainwright (1963): Amendment yechitanhatu (maruramiro ezano).
  • Malloy v. Hogan [1964]): shanu Amendment (kudzivirirwa pakuzvidzivisa).
  • Pointer v. Texas (65): Amendment yechitanhatu (kururama kutarisana nezvapupu).
  • [FLT][1] Duncan v. Louisiana (1968): Amendment yechitanhatu (kurudyi kutongwa nedare rinobetsera vatongi).
  • Benton v. Maryland [1969]: programmeter yeshanu (ngozi yakapetwa kaviri).
  • McDonald v. Chicago [2010]): Amendment yechipiri (maruramiro okuchengeta nokutakura zvombo).

Uku kupandukira kwaibatanidza kwakasimbisa kuti vimbiso dzeBill of Rights dzakava uriri hwedziviriro nokuda kwomugari ari wose, pasinei zvapo nehurumende yavaigara mairi.

Gadziriro Yakafanira: Rusununguko Runopfuura Rudzi

Nepo muitiro wakafanira wezvokunyora uchivimbisa mitoo yakarurama (mazita, kunzwa, mutongi asingasaruri), muitiro wakafanira wokuparirwa [ ipfungwa ine simba zvikuru nepanikiridzo. Inotaura kuti dzimwe rusununguko rukuru rwakadzika midzi kwazvo munhau yorudzi namagamuchidzanwa zvokuti hurumende haigoni kudzongonyedza chose chose, pasinei zvapo nemiitiro inoshandiswa, kutoti ine chikonzero chakasimba.

Iyi pfungwa yakatanga kubudirira muzana ramakore rechi20 mukati me Lochner nhambo. [FLT]] Lochner v. New York (1905], Dare Gurusa rakashandisa Nhevedzo yeMitemo ye 145 yeRemendement kurova mutemo wehurumende unoganhurira vabiki kusvikira kumaawa 60 ebasa vhiki. Dare rakataura kuti "kururama kubvumirano" yakanga iri rusununguko rukuru runodzivirirwa negadziriro yakafanira, uye kuti hurumende yakanga isina kugovera ruramiso yakakwana yokukanganisa. Iyi dzidziso yakashorwa zvikuru nokuda kwokurova mugariro wemari pamugariro wemari pamitezo yemitezo yetezo yema1930.

Zvisinei, Dare harina kurega muitiro wakafanira chose chose. Panzvimbo pezvo, rakadzoserazve dzidziso kurusununguko rwomunhu oga, rukuru. Mu Pierce v. Society of Hanzvadzi (1925) uye Meyer v. Nebraska[FLT]] [1923], Dare rakaziva maruramiro makuru avabereki okutungamirira kurerwa nedzidzo yavana vavo. Uyu mutsetse wokurangarira wakasvika pamucheto mukuru panzvimbo yaro yomunhu oga.

Mu Griswold v. Connecticut[[FL:1] [65], Dare rakagumisa chirambidzo chehurumende pazvinodzivisa kubata pamuviri, ri kuwana kuti ukama hweroorano hwakawira mukati me "Union of the commentation" yakadzivirirwa nepenumbras dzeBill of Rights. ruramisiro Harlan, mukufunga kwakafanira, kwakadzika iyi maruramiro zvakananga muBattle Clausce. [FLT:] [FLT:]] R [5] - v.[5]

Chisarudzo mu Dobbs v. Jackson Vakadzi’s Health Organization [2022] Roe [ inoratidzira kuti muitiro wakafanira hausi dzidziso yapakarepo asi rutivi rwakatsikirira zvikuru rwedudziro yebumbiro remitemo, kumutsa mibvunzo inokosha pamusoro penzira yokuziva nayo kodzero dzisina kusiiwa.

Kuchinja Kwedare reWarren Mutsika Dzetsika Dzezvakanaka

Hapana nhambo munhau yeAmerica yakashandura revo inoshanda yomuitiro wokutaura wakafanira nokuda kwavagariwo zvavo kupfuura ufakazi hwaMambo Mutongi Earl Warren (1953 - 969). Dare raWarren rakasimbisa zvikurukuru kutarisirwa kweruramisiro youtsotsi, richiisa mipimo yebumbiro remitemo yakakomba pahurumende namapurisa omunzvimbomo, vachuchisi, uye matare.

Mu Mapp v.O. (1961), Dare rakaita kuti mutemo wokuparadzanisa ushande kunyika, kumanikidza mapurisa ehurumende kuwirirana neFrene Amendment. Mu Gideon v. [[FLT]][FLD]] [1963], Dare raidavira kuti Dare raida kuti Sixmendement idineidze mitemo yokugovera vapomendi voutsotsi vasingagoni kuvapa kodzero dzavo dzokuvapa mhosva, pasinei zvapo nemhosva yakananga. Mu [FLT:] Marinda. [v [5], Dare rakatanga zvino-amhine maruramiro amapurisa anofanira kuzivisa kodzero dzavo dzoudzorogaro uye kuzivisa kudzorwa kwavo vakaresa. Mudare rinoziviswa zvikuru mukupa mhosva inoziviswa kupfurikidza nokushorwa kwechitongedzero.

Zvisarudzo izvi zvakanga zvisina gakava. Vatsoropodzi vakapomera Dare kuti "rinosunga matsotsi" uye“ rinosunga mapurisa. ” Zvisinei, nheyo huru yaitsigira kuchinja kwakafanira kweDare reWarren yakanga iri chitendero chokuti kuva pamutemo kwegadziriro yeruramisiro yeutsotsi kunotsamira pakururama kwayo kukuru uye kuti Bumbiro remitemo rinofanira kuva gwaro mhenyu rinodzivirira vanyajambwa pasimba rinotyisa rehurumende.

Kufambira Mberi Kwaifanira Kuitwa Muzana Remakore Rechi21: Masangano Matsva, Makakatanwa Ekare

Ruzivo rwokugadzira zvinhu zvaruchafambira mberi, nheyo dzinokosha dzemuitiro wakafanira dziri kuedzwa munzira dzisingaenzaniswi.

Mu Riley v. California (2014, Dare Gurusa rakabatana rakaziva kuti runhare rweserura harusi chinhuwo zvacho asi kudzorwa kwamashoko makuru emichina. Dare rakataura kuti mapurisa anowanzoda murairo wokunzvera chiitiko cheserura kuti vasungwe. Chirevo chikuru Roberts akanyora kuti mashoko ari parunhare "haigoni kushandiswa sechombo chokukuvadza nacho mupurisa kana kuti kuparira kutiza" uye kuti "nhau dzechibharo dzinonyanyorema" dzinopiwa "kuchengeta runhare rwazvino uno".

Carpleent v. United States (2017]) yakatoendazve, ichirangarira kuti kuwana kwehurumende mutengo wamavhiki enzvimbo yesero renhau kubva kumunhu anotakura nenyumbu kunoumba kunzvera muGaramisiti yeChina. Dare rakaziva kuti vanhu vane kariro ine mufungo yokuva voga mumibato yavo yose yemuviri, vachiramba kutaura kwehurumende kuti mashoko acho aiva eboka rechitatu (kambani yerunhare) panzvimbo pomunhu mumwe nomumwe.

Kupfuura muitiro woutsotsi, muitiro wakafanira unokwikwidzwa zvikuru mune dzimwe nhandare. Muitiro unodikanwa pakoriji wazova nhambo inodzorwa, nematare achirwisana negadziriro yakadini iripo nokuda kwavadzidzi vanotarisana nepomero dzevatano pasi peTitle IX, kudzikamisa fariro dzavanyunyuti navapi. Dare Rapamusoro mu [FLT:] [FLD] v. Rumsfeld [200]]) [2004])) vagari vemo vakarangarira kuti kunyange U.S. vanochengetwa sa "Regcon" vane kodzero yemicrokudzivirira kukuru, kubatanidza uye mukana une revo kuti vakwikwikwidzano. [FLT] MuvBB]

Dare rapamusoro rakatangawo gadziriro yakaisvonaka yokunzvera muitiro wakafanira kunze kwenhau. Mu Mathews v. Elditriji [77], Dare rakatanga muedzo wetatu wokuyera kuti uone kuti mutoo wapamutemo wakafanira:

    [[FLT]] Fariro yapachivande ichatapurwa nechiito chehurumende.[[FLT:] [[4]] ngozi yokurasikirwa nefariro yakadaro kupfurikidza nemiitiro inoshandiswa, uye uko kuringanisira migariro inopfuuyiswa.[FFFF] zvino.[9]

    Mugumo: Chipikirwa Chisingaperi Chokuva Akanaka

    Mhindumupindu yekodzero dzegadziriro dzakakodzera haisati iri nhauwo zvayo yapamutemo; inhau yehondo yeAmerica yokuyananisa mifungo yayo yakakwirira zvikurusa neidi rayo risina kukwana. Kuvambira paminda ine guruva ye Runnymede kusvikira kuvashandisi vemikoto vakanyarara veSilicon Valley, kutsvakwa kwokururama kukuru kunopfuurira. Murangariro wegadziriro yakafanira wakabvumikisa kuva mumwe wezvishandiso zvinochinjika zvikurusa uye zvine simba mutura webumbiro remitemo, unokwanisa kuchinjika kutyisidziro itsva nepo inoramba yakavakirwa munheyo yekare yokuti hurumende inofanira kutevera mutemo ndokubata munhu ari wose noruremekedzo.

    Sezvo denho itsva dzinobuda (kubva pakumuka kwouchenjeri hwokugadzira neruramisiro yemitemo kusvikira kunharo dzinopfuurira pamusoro pechengeteko yenyika, kutama, uye kusaenzana kwemari) nheyo huru inoramba iri imwe cheteyo. Hurumende yakarurama inofanira kuita nenzira yakarurama, inofanira kutevera mitemo yayo imene, uye inofanira kuremekedza chiremera chemunhu ari wose. Chikamu chenhau yeAmerica chinopfuurira kutera kururamisiro zvikurukuru nemhaka yokuti murangariro weitiro rakafanira, unochinjika, unogara, uye mukuru womunhu, unogovera kambasi yayo yetsika. Kuchengeta mukurumbira, vagari vemo vanonzwisisa uye vanoraira izvi dziviriro idziviriro yokupedzisira yeiyi nhaka inoshamisa yebumbiro.