Mavambo Epfungwa Dzepamutemo: Kuumba Kunoita Utongi Kodzero Nezvirongwa

Gadziriro dzemitemo hadzishandi muchadenga() dzinovakirwa pamazana amakore enzvero youzivi, kurwisana kwenzanga, uye kurangarira kwokutonga. Jurispraise, fundo yengano yomutemo, inopa mavambo ouchenjeri okunzwisisa chikonzero nei kodzero dzakati dzichidzivirirwa uye nei mitoro inowirirana iripo. Nokuda kwavadzidzisi, vadzidzi, uye vagari vemo vakaronzeswa, vanonzwisisa kuti jurispraderine inoshanda sei nekodzero dzavagari vemo nemabasa zvinokosha kufambisa nzvimbo yepamutemo yazvino uno. Nyaya ino inonzvera zvikoro zvinokosha zvomurangariro wapamutemo, basa rinokosha renhau yomutemo mukuwedzera rusununguko rwomunhu, uye misengwa inotsigira nzanga yakarurama.

Kurondedzera Utongi Hwacho Nemibvunzo Yahwo Yakajeka

Panhau hurusa, dare rinobvunza, kuti: Chiremera charo chinobva kupi? Vatongi vanofanira kududzira sei mitemo kana kuti mabumbiro emitemo? iyi mibvunzo yakaparira gakava risingaverengeki mutsika dzose nenhambo. Vazivi vakabva kuna Plato kusvikira kuna H.L.A. Hart vakapa mhinduro dzinokwikwidzana, imwe neimwe ine revo huru nokuda kwenzira iyo hurumende dzinobata nayo vagari vemo vayo. Juriprade haisati iri muitiro wedzidzo wakavanzika wedzidzo yakananga mutemo, zvisarudzo zvekutonga, uye kushandiswa kwekodzero kwezuva riri rose.

Zvikoro Zvikuru Zveudzori

Kunzwisisa zvikoro zvikuru zvemitemo kunokosha nokuda kwomunhu upi noupi anoda kunzvera nharo dzapamutemo kana kuti anokarira kuti matare angatonga sei.

Mutemo weNattural Theory Posits kuti mutemo unofanira kuwirirana nenheyo dzetsika dzapose pose dzinopinzwa mumugariro womunhu. Vafungi vakaita saThomas Aquinas vakataura kuti mutemo usina kururama hausi mutemo wechokwadi. Uyu murangariro wave uchishandiswa mukuumba hurukuro yavanhu (somuenzaniso, Universal Declaration of Human Rights [1948]) inokwevera zvikuru pamifungo yomusikirwo. Mutoo, kurangarira kwomutemo kwomusikirwo kunotangira munharo pamusoro pokuti kana mutemo wakarurama (mumwe wakagadzwa nedare regina) unogona kushatiswa kana ukaputsa ruramisiro inokosha.

.Legal Positivism, mukupesana, inochengeta kuti mutemo unongova mutevedzero wemitemo inoumbwa nezviremera zvavanhu kupfurikidza nemiitiro inozivikanwa. H.L.A. Hart akarondedzera mutemo somubatanidzwa wemitemo mikuru neyokupedzisira. Positivivism haitongi mutemo kupfurikidza nezviri mukati mawo zvetsika; panzvimbo pezvo, unonangidzira papigree yawo. chikoro ichi chinodzora mumasangano mazhinji emitemo yapamutemo okuMadokero, umo vatongi vanowanzoshandisa mitemo inoiswa kunyange kana vasingabvumirani navo pachavo. Zvisinei, positivitionism yakatsoroporwa nokuda kwokugona kuita kuti hurumende dzakashata dzive chinhu, chinobatanidza nguva dzose?

.Legal Realism yakabuda mumavambo ezana ramakore rechi20 sedavidzo inorwisana netsika. Maidi anotaura kuti mutemo upi chaizvoizvo usingagoni kutsaurwa nenzira iyo vatongi vanosarudza nayo nhau. Vanosimbisa mugariro wenzanga, dzvinyiriro dzemari, uye mirangariro yomunhu oga yavatongi. Kuva revo kwapamutemo kwakagadzira nzira nokuda kwechigaro chenhau nefundo dzapamutemo. Somuenzaniso, muuyo wenhau ungatendeukira zvishoma panheyo dzemitemo dzemitemo uye apo boka rine zviteshi zviri nani kana kuti apo rinotonga kuva nechimiro chakati chezvamatongerwe enyika.

Studies Legal (CLS) inopfuurira kupfurikidza nokutaura kuti mutemo chishandiso chesimba icho chinosimbisa zviremera zviripo. Nyanzvi dzeCLS dzinodenha dzidziso dzegamuchidzanwa `zvakadai somutemo webvumirano kana kuti mutemo wezvinhu] sezvishandiso zvinochengeta boka, dzinza, uye uregeredzo hwevatano. Nepo CLS yakapararira zvikuru mudzidzo, pesvedzero yayo inogona kuonwa mumasangano azvino uno eruramisiro yedzinza neukwakaenzana kwemari.

Mutsigiri Jurisprudence anonzvera kuti gadziriro dzapamutemo dzakaderedza sei munhau vakadzi uye dzinosimbisa tsika dzamadzitateguru. Inonzvera mirangariro yetsika dzavanhurume nedzechirume pamusoro pekodzero dzokubereka, masimba masimba omumba, uye kuva nomwero pabasa. Nenzira yakafanana, Race Theory[[[FLT:]]

Vatongi nevaiti vemitemo vanowanzobatanidza zvinhu zvinobva muzvikoro zvakawanda, zvichiita kuti pave negadziriro yemitemo inoita kuti pave nemitemo inoita kuti pave nesimba, inoita kuti pave nemitemo inoita kuti zvive nyore kuona ukama hwepamutemo.

Kunaka Kwakaita Kodzero Dzevagari Vemo

Kodzero dzavagari vemo idziviriro idzodzo neropafadzo izvo vagari vemo vanazvo mukurwisana nedzokupindira kwehurumende nedzevomunhu oga.Idzo dzinovimbisa kubatwa kwakaenzana mumutemo ndokudzivirira rusununguko runokosha. Nepo ndaza yakananga yamaruramiro avagari vemo ichisiyana kupfurikidza nehurumende, gadziriro zhinjisa dzehurumende inosarudzwa navanhu dzinoziva maruramiro makuru anoverengeka anokosha.

Kodzero Yokuenzana

Chitsama chakaenzana chedziviriro muKinformation ye 144th Amendment kuBumbiro reMitemo reU.S. chinorambidza kuramba kudzivirira kwakaenzana kwomunhu upi noupi kwemitemo. Iyi nheyo yave iri hwaro hwemitemo yetsika inopesana norusaruro, rusaruro rwechirume, uye kusvika kusina kuenzana kudzidzo. Chisarudzo cheDare Gurusa re Brown v. . Dare reDzidzidzo [[FLT]] [1954] [1] [1954] rakazivisa zvakakurumbira kuti nzvimbo yedzidzo haienzaniswi, inokanganisa dzidziso yakaenzana neyavanhu, inokanganisa dzidziso yakatangwa mu .[FLT] (1866]).

Zvakarurama Kutaura Norusununguko

Rusununguko rwokutaura runodzivirirwa neFirst Amendment muUnited States uye negadziriro dzakafanana mune dzimwe nyika dzakawanda. Jurispradence yakarondedzera miganhu yeichi maruramiro, zvakadai sechinoumba kutaura kusina kudzivirirwa (g., kunyandurwa kumasimba masimba, kuzvidza). Mhaka yechiratidzo Brandenburg v. Ohio[FLD] [1969] [1969] yakasimbisa kuti kutaura kunogona kurambidzwa bedzi kana kuchitungamirirwa kunyandura chiito chokusateerera mutemo uye sezvingabvira kuita saizvozvo.

Kuwana Nguva Yokuva Woga

Kodzero yokuva woga haidudzwi zvakajeka muBumbiro reMitemo reU.S. asi yakabviswa mudzimwe dzodzo. Mu Griswold v.Connecticut (1965), Dare Gurusa rakaziva “pachivande” pakodzero muukama hweroorano, kurova mutemo unorambidza kuvhara pamuviri. Uku kurangarira gare gare kwaitsigira maruramiro okubvisa pamuviri mu [[FLT:] Roe v. Wade v. [FLT]] [7]] Kududzira pamutemo kushandura mufambiro wevatano wapachivande [[FLT] [12] [7]] [7]) kushandura sei kushambadzira kwapamutemo.

Maruramiro Okuita Zvinodiwa

Gadziriro yapamberi pedare inovimbisa kuti kutongwa kwemitemo kuchave kwakarurama uye kuti hapana munhu achanyimwa upenyu, rusununguko, kana kuti zvinhu pasina dziviriro dzakakwana.Gadziro dzeChishanu neDidzirendements dzeChishanu dzinogovera zvose zviri zviviri muitiro wezvinodikanwa (nongedzero, kunzwa, dare risina rusaruro) uye muitiro wakafanira wapamberi pemitemo (kudzivirira maruramiro makuru akati kuti mudzongonyedzo yehurumende).

Mitoro Yavagari Vemo Muhurumende Inosarudzwa Navanhu yeBumbiro reMitemo

Kodzero nemitoro mativi maviri emari imwe cheteyo.

Kuisa Mutemo pauri mutoro mukurusa. Pasina kuzviisa pasi kwavose, mutemo unoputsika. Zvisinei, juristradence inobvumawo kuti mune mamwe mamiriro ezvinhu, kusateerera kwavagari vemo kungaruramiswa mutsika apo mutemo unenge usina kururama zvikuru (sokuonekwa mumanyoro aMartin Luther King Jr.

[ Kubhadhara Mitero [ Mari yezvipo zvehurumende zvakadai segadziriro, dzidzo, uye matare. Kunzvenga mutero imhosva youtsotsi inonetesa kukwanisa kwehurumende kudzivirira kodzero. Mitero yazvino uno inobatanidza mitemo yakaoma pamusoro peinokosha semari, mari, mari yechikwereti, asi mutoro mukuru unoramba wakananga: kumari inochengetwa.

Kubatira paJury ibasa rehurumende rinovimbisa muitiro wokutonga kubatanidza kutora rutivi munzanga. Sixth Amendment inovimbisa maruramiro kukutonga mumhaka dzoutsotsi, asi kodzero iyoyo inotsamira pavagari vomunyika vanoda kubatira. Kukundikana kubuda nokuda kwebasa redare redare kunogona kuguma nefashoni kana kuti kuzvidza dare.

Kuvhota ikodzero nemutoro. Nepo pasina hurumende yedemocracy inomanikidza vagari vemo kuvhota (kunze kwenyika shomanene dzakafanana neAustralia), utano hwehurumende inosarudzwa navanhu hunotsamira pakutora rutivi kwakapararira. Mitemo inoganhurira kusvika pakuvhota, zvakadai sezvinodikanwa zvevoti yeID kana kuti kubvisa maruramiro echisoriso, inomutsa mibvunzo inokosha yekodzero dzevagari vemo uye yave iri nhau yokutora nhau huru.

Kupfuura iyi mitoro yapamutemo, vagari vemo vane mitoro yetsika neyenzanga: kuremekedza kodzero dzevamwe, kupinda mubasa renzanga, kudzivirira mhoteredzo, uye kutsigira ruramisiro. iyi mitoro, kunyange zvazvo isingabvumirwi nguva dzose, inowanzonongedzerwa mumirangariro yedare apo matare anokurukura misengwa mikuru yougari hwemo.

Kuumba Kunoita Kuzvibata Kodzero Dzevagari Vemo: Nhungamiro Huru

Kurangarira hakuna kuzara - chinja - chinja - chinja — nhau dzezviratidzo dzinovakwa papfungwa dzapakuvamba, uye masangano matsva enzanga anosunda matare kunzverazve dzidziso dzekare. Muitiro wokurangarira kwapamutemo (hwunoisa, kutsauranisa, uye kuyera nheyo) kana kodzero dzichiwedzera kana kuti kubvumirana.

Kurwira Kururamisira Kwedzinza

Chivil Rights Movement of the 1950 ne 1960s zvakachinja zvikuru jurispurence yeAmerica. Brown v. Board of Education (1954) yakanga isiri bedzi rukundo rwetsika asiwo chinjo yapamutemo. Murangariro mukuru we Justice Earl Warren waitsamira paufakazi hwenzanga neravidzo huru yeSayenzi yeSayenzi. Iyi yakaratidzira kuti jurisprudeficia inogona kuumbwa nezvinhu zvisiri zvapamutemo, zvakadai senjodzi inoparirwa nehuvara.

Zviitiko zvinotevera zvakadai se Lovang v. Virginia (1967) yakabvisa zvirambidzo paroorano yemadzinza, ichisimbisazve nheyo yokuti kutsaura kwedzinza kunofanira kubatira fariro inogombedzera uye kugadziriswa. Voting Rights Act ye 1965, yakatsigirwa muzvisarudzo zvakawanda zveDare rapamusoro, yaida zviremera nenhau yetsarudzo yehurumende kuti iwane mvumo yehurumende isati yachinja mitemo yokuvhota. Zvisinei, chisarudzo cha 2013 cheDare mu County v. Shel County [[FL:3]]

Kuenzana Kwevanhu Vane Utano uye Kodzero Dzokubereka

Kodzero dzavakadzi dzakapfuudzirwa kupfurikidza nenhevedzano yemirau yechiratidzo. Reed v. Reed [771] yakanga iri nhau yokutanga kushandisa Nhungamiro Yakaenzana kuti ipedze mutemo usati wabva pahwaro hwevatano. Gare gare, Craig v. Boren[FLT][FLT] [3] [7] yakasimbisa mupimo worumano rwevatano. Ikoku kunoreva kuti hurumende inofanira kuratidza kuti mutemo wakavakirwa pavatano unowirirana zvikuru nefariro inokosha yehurumende.

Kubereka kodzero kwakasvika papfundo radzo guru mu Roe v. Wade [172]), iyo yakaziva maruramiro ebumbiro remitemo kubvisa pamuviri pasi peGungano reChibvumirano chaNignational Claus ye 145 Amendment. Zvisinei, chisarudzo cheDare mu Dobs v. Jackson Vakadzi veHwiromey Health Organization [ [2022]) pamusoro pechiito [[FLT:] Roe], kudzorera nhau kumitemo. Uku kunoratidza kuti kodzero dzemitemo hadzisi zechigarire. Nokuda kwezviziviro zvinodzodzoro

LGBTQ+ Kodzero Nemhindumupindu Yorusununguko

Gadziriro yeLGBTQ+ kuenzana kwakaona chinjo dzapamutemo dzinokurumidza mumakumi maviri amakore apfuura. Mu Lawrence v. Texas [2003], Dare Rapamusoro rakarova mitemo yesodomay, richiita kuti mufambiro iwoyo wapedyo pakati pavakura vanobvuma uve rutivi rwekudzivirirwa neClaus. Mhaka inotonga [ Bhowers v. Hardweck[ (1986), iyo yakanga yatsigira mitemo yakadaro. Chinjo inoenzanisira kuti kuchinja idiro yavanhu ingagona sei kupesvedzera kurangarira.

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015) (2015) maruramiro okuroora kuvakwanyina vane mitezo yakafanana yokubereka nayo, anorangarira kuti roorano imaruramiro anokosha uye kuti kubvisa varoorani vorutivi rumwe cheterwo rwomutezo unopesana zvose zviri zviviri Muitiro weChiitiko nePuremential Provice. Chisarudzo chikuru Roberts chakarambwa, achiramba kuti Dare rakanga richipfuura basa raro (a muenzaniso wakaisvonaka wekukakavandikano pakati pemitemo nechiito chokutonga chiri pamwoyo pejurisprudence.

Nguva pfupi yapfuura, Bostock v. Clayton County [20]) yaidavira kuti musoro VII weChibvumirano cheCivil Rights Act unorambidza kusarura basa kwakavakirwa pachimiro chevatano kana kuti zita romunhu. Dare rakashandisa dudziro remitemo, kwete rebumbiro remitemo, kuti risvike mhedziso iyoyo(a chiyeuchidzo chokuti jurisprudeunce inobatanidza kwete bedzi kurangarira kwebumbiro remitemo asiwo kududzira mitemo.

Kutonga uye Mabasa Avagari Vemo: Kurondedzera Mabasa

Dare rinowanzotaura mabasa atinofanira kuita kuhurumende uye kune mumwe nomumwe, richisiya mabasa iwayo ari mumitemo.

Kubatanidzwa Kwenzanga Nebvumirano Yenzanga

Nenzira yokurangarira, pfungwa yechibvumirano chenzanga (kubva kuHobbes, Locke, uye Rousseau) inochengeta kuti vanhu vanobvumira kurega rusununguko rwakati mukutsinhana nokuda kwedziviriro nenhevedzano. Mitemo yazvino uno inoratidzira uyu murangariro: mitemo inoda basa redare redare redare, kunyoreswa muchiuto, kana kuti muripo wemitero inoruramiswa semisengwa inowirirana. Dare Rapamusoro rakatsigira basa redare rinotonga rinosungirwa kunyange apo rinoisa nhamo, ichirangarira kuti kudikanwa kwemiedzo inoruramisira kunokurira njodzi dzomunhu oga oga.

Kuremekedza Kodzero Dzavamwe Seganhuriro Pamunhu Oga

Nheyo yakakurumbira yokuti “maruramiro ako okupenyetsa ruoko rwako kumugumo apo mhino yangu inovamba” yakarovererwa zvikuru mumutemo wechinoto nemutemo unonetesa. Jurisprince inosimbisa kuti maruramiro haasati ari akakwana; anofanira kuva anodzikamiswa pamaruramiro okukwikwidzana. Rusununguko rwokutaura harudzivisi kusvibiswa, kunyandurwa, kana kuti kurwa namashoko. Kururama kutakura zvombo kunodzorwa nemirairo ine mufungo, sezvinoonekwa mu Dicureator of Columbia v. [FLY:] [2008], iyo inosimbisa munhu mumwe nomumwe kuti achengeterwe pfuti nokuda kwezvipfuti amene asi anobvumirwawo nokuda kwemifungo nemufungo.

Mutoro Wemhoteredzo Nechivimbo Chavose

Mumakumi amakore achangobva kupfuura aya, matare akaziva basa riri kutanga kudzivirira mhoteredzo nokuda kwezvizvarwa zvinotevera. Dzidziso yavose, yakavakirwa mumutemo weRoma nomutemo weEngland, inodavira kuti zvimwe zvinhu zvomusikirwo zvakadai semvura dzinonavigwa, mahombe, uye mhuka dzesango (zvisati zvasarudzwa nehurumende yavanhu vose). Iyi dzidziso yakashandiswa kudenha zviito zvehurumende zvinokuvadza mhoteredzo. Somuenzaniso, mhaka yechiratidzo . United States[FLT]] (hange zvichiri kusarudzwa pamipimo) inoramba kuti hurumende ine basa remitemo kudzivirira mhoteredzo.

Mitemo inorambidza kusvibisa, kudzora zvinobudiswa, uye inoda kugadziriswazve zvinhu inobva papfungwa yokuti zviito zvemunhu oga zvine migumisiro yavose.

Kururamisira Sechibvumirano Chehurumende

Nepo isati iri musengwa wapamutemo, matare mazhinji nenyanzvi dzapamutemo vakaziva kuti vagari vemo vane mutoro wetsika wokutsigira gadziriro yapamutemo yakarurama zvikuru. Iyi pfungwa inowanzokumbirwa mukupesana mifungo inokurudzira kuchinja mutemo. Somuenzaniso, Justice Thurmall Marshall ainyora kazhinji kazhinji kuti matare anogona kuita zvakawanda kwazvo bedzi; chinjo inogara inoda kuvimbisana kwehurumende. Murangariro we “kukwirira ruramisiro pasi pomutemo” unoraira kuti avo vanobetserwa negadziriro inoshanda kururamisa zvikanganiso zvayo.

Matambudziko Achavapo Nenhungamiro Dzomunguva Yemberi

Kufambira mberi kweruzivo rwezvinhu, kudyidzana kwenyika dzepasi pose, uye kubatana kwematongerwe enyika kunokonzera mibvunzo mitsva yepamutemo inodenha zvirongwa zviripo.

Kushandisa Mashoko Asiri Oga uye Kushandisa Mashoko Akasununguka Pakombiyuta

Kukwira kweInternet nesocial social kwadzika miganhu yetsika here? Kunzvera foni kunorangarirwa kuva kunzvera muGavhura reChina? Dare Rapamusoro rakataura kuti hungu mu Riley v. California (2014, kuziva kuti mashoko ekombiyuta anoda dziviriro chaiyo. Nenzira yakafanana, matare ari kurwisana nekuti masangano enzanga anoona zviri nzvimbo dzinoda kudzivirirwa norusununguko, kana kuti masangano avanhu anogona kunzvera zviri mukati menguva iyoyo.

Kuchinja Kwetsika Neruramisiro Yeutsotsi

Rufu rukuru rwevaBlack America pamaoko amapurisa rwakanyandura zvikumbiro zvokuvandudza. Jurisprudence yakapoteredza kudzivirirwa kwavakakwaniriswa nejekiseni (dzidziso inodzivirira kuchengetwa kwomutemo panzvimbo yavagari vemo kutoti vaputsa kodzero dzakasimbiswa zvakajeka. Dzimwe nyika dzakatanga kuganhurira kana kuti kudzima. Gakava pamusoro pokuti tsika yepamutemo inodzivirira zvakakwana vagari vemo pasimba rakanyanyisa inhau yecherokudzikamisa pamutemo pamusoro pedzikamo pakati penhevedzano nerusununguko.

Kodzero Dzenyika Yose Dzose uye Uchangamire Hwenyika Yose

Matare enyika yose, akadai seInternational Criminal Court, anoshandisa nheyo dzemitemo inodarika miganhu yenyika. Universal Declaration of Human Rights, zvibvumirano zvakafanana neSungano yeInternational on Civil and Politic Rights, uye mutemo wetsika dzenyika yose zvose zvinopesvedzera gadziriro dzemitemo yemo. Zvisinei, rwisano dzinomuka apo tsika dzamarudzi ose dzinorwisana nouchangamire hwenyika yose, somuenzaniso, apo nyika inoramba kuwedzera kufungiraniswa kuumambo nechirango chorufu. Jurispradenti inobetsera kupedza idzi kusawirirana kupfurikidza nedzidziso dzakadai nokuwirirana uye kududzira chibvumirano.

Chikonzero Nei Tichinzwisisa Nhau Dzedzidzo Nougari Hwomunyika

Nokuda kwavadzidzisi, kudzidzisa mutemo hakusi kungotsanangurawo zvako rondedzero dzisina kujeka.

Uyezve, jurispurence inokurudzira kufunga kwokutsoropodza. Apo mudzidzi anonzvera kurangarira mu Brown v. Boka reDzidzo , vanoona kuti mutemo unogona sei kubatira ruramisiro. Pavanodzidza Dred Scott v. Sandford [1857], vanoona kuti mutemo unogona sei kusimudzira kusaruramisira. Nokuenzanisa izvi zvinoitika, vadzidzi vanodzidza kuti mutemo hausati uri mutezo wezvokwadi dzakatsigiwa asi muitiro mupenyu unoratidzira mipimo yezvikodzero.] uye kuti vane basa mukuuumba.

Pakupedzisira, utano hwehurumende inosarudzwa navanhu hunotsamira pavagari vemo vanoziva vanonzwisisa zvose zviri zviviri kodzero dzayo nemitoro yayo. Jurispracy inopa gadziriro yepfungwa nokuda kwenzwisiso iyoyo. Seizvo muzivi wemitemo Lon Fuller akambonyora, “mutemo ibasa rokupa mufambiro womunhu kuudzoreso hwemitemo.” Kubudirira kwebhizimisi iroro kunotsamira pakurukurirano inopfuurira pakati pematare, matare omutemo, uye vanhu.

[[[Nto:0] Kurava kwakawedzera neZviwanikwa:[