Kunzwisisa Kuzviisa Pasi Kaviri: Dziviriro Dzebumbiro Remitemo Nenheyo Dzechibage

Nheyo yenjodzi mbiri dzinomira seimwe yedziviriro dzinokosha zvikurusa mumutemo woutsotsi, ichidzivisa mugariro kuisa munhu kumatare anoverengeka kana kuti zvirango nokuda kwemhosva imwe cheteyo. Iyi dziviriro yakadzika midzi zvikuru mugamuchidzanwa remitemo reAnglo - American, ine mhesano yokudzokera shure kumutemo weRoma wakare nomutemo weChirungu wavose debet bis vis e ana ea causa [ mumwe anofanira kushatiriswa nekaviri nokuda kwechisakiso chimwe chetecho.

MuUnited States, ngozi yakapetwa kaviri inodzivirirwa zvakajeka neFindth Amendment to the Constitution, iyo inopa kuti munhu “asazvidzore nokuda kwemhosva imwe cheteyo kuti aitwe kaviri mungozi youpenyu kana kuti makumbo.” Iyi vimbiso inoshanda kuhurumende kupfurikidza neSCT Procession of 1450th Amendment Claus. Donzo rinokosha i katatu: kudzivirira vanhu pamitoro yemari, yemirangariro, uye mitoro yemukurumbira yokudzorwazve; kuchengeta kuguma kwerutongeso; uye kudzivisa kubatwa nechitsoropo kana kuti kunetsa.

Dziviriro yacho inonamatira apo mukwiridziridziri anenge aiswa mungozi — kazhinji kazhinji pashure pokunge vatongi vapiwa uye vapika mukutonga kwedare rinobetsera vatongi, kana kuti apo chapupu chokutanga chinopikirwa mukutonga kwebhenji. Pachinongobatanidzwa, kusunungurwa kana kuti kutenderwa kunosungirwa kutongerwa mhaka imwe cheteyo. Zvisinei, revo chaiyo ye “chinhu chimwe chetecho” uye migariro muimo umo ufakazi hunobva muchinoitika chapamberi hungashandiswa mukutongwa kwapashure inoda kunzvera kwokungwarira.

Muganhu Unokosha

Kubatanidzwa Kwakaipa

Dare risati ratanga kutora ufakazi hwedare, nyaya dzengozi dzisati dzamuka, ngozi inofanira kubatanidzwa. Mukutonga kunoitwa nedare, njodzi inobatana padare parinotanga kupiwa uchapupu. Kana mhosva isati yabviswa, hurumende ingatsiva mhosva pasina kuputsa Bumbiro remitemo. Kusiyaniswa uku kunokosha nokuti kunotema kana mutongi anotevera achinzi “wechipiri” anopomerwa mhosva imwe cheteyo.

Kupomerwa Kunopesana Nemhosva.

Kana mukwirirwi akasunungurwa (kuwanikwa asina mhaka), ngozi yakapetwa kaviri inodzivisa chose chose kutongwa kwemhosva imwe cheteyo, pasinei zvapo nokuti kutendeka kungava kwakaipa sei. Dare Rapamusorosoro rakarangarira kuti kunyange kurambwa kwapamutemo hakugoni kukwidzwa kana kuti kutorwazve. Mukupesana, kana kutonga kukaguma mudare risina kururama (somuenzaniso, nemhaka yedare rinoturikwa kana kuti kuratidzirwa kudikanwa) mukwirirwi angadzorwazve pasina kukanganisa kuviri, kupfurikidza nokusatsamwiswa nomufambiro usina kururama womurovereri wemhosva kuitirwa kunyandura mukwirirwi nokuda kwokutongwa kwakaipa.

Mufungo we “Kugumbuka”: Blockburger Test

Mubvunzo mukuru mukunzvera kwakapetwa kaviri ndowokuti here mhaka mumatare maviri ndedze “mhosva imwe cheteyo” seiyo muyokutanga. Munzvero inotungamirira ndimo shoo ye “stalburger [, yakagadzwa mu [[FLT]] tatburger v. United States [1932]]. Muiyi muedzo, mhosva mbiri ndidzo dzimwe chetedzo kana imwe neimwe isingaderi chibvumikiso chechimwe chinhu icho chimwe chisingasati. Namamwe mashoko, kana utsotsi huri huduku zvikuru hunobatanidzwa nokuda kwezvimwe utsotsi hwose hungaputsa njodzi mbiri. Zvisinei, kana utsotsi humwe nohumwe huchirangarirwa pachinhu chimwe chete, hunorangarirwa zvikanganiso uye hunoedzwa nenzira inotevedzerwa.

Somuenzaniso, kana mukwirirwi akasunungurwa paugororo asi gare gare akapomerwa kudenha kunomuka muchinoitika chimwe chetecho, dare rinofanira kunzvera mativi emitemo. Robbery inowanzoda kutora zvinhu nokumanikidzirwa kana kuti tyisidziro, nepo denho ichida kuvadziko kana kuti rutyo rwekuvadziko. Kana denho isingadi kutora, mhaka dzacho dzingava dzinopesana. Asi kana pomero yacho yokudenha yakatoitwa nomutoo wakatotukwa, ngozi yakapetwa kaviri ingaidzivisa kutora pasi pedzidziso ye

Collateral Estopel Nenhau Yokuzviparadzanisa

Ngozi yakapetwa kaviri inobatanidzawo nheyo yeyauniversal estopel, pane dzimwe nguva inonzi nhau inopinzwa, iyo inodzivisa hurumende kuvamba nhau iyo yakasarudzwa chaizvoizvo munyasha dzomukwiridziridziridziri mufambiro usati wapfuura. Mhaka huru ndi Aspeas. Swenson[FLP] [1970], apo Dare Rapamusoro rakadzivisa kuti pashure pokunge mutongi awana mutengi wokubira mumwe wavanyajambwa vatanhatu, hurumende yaisagona kumubvumira nokuda kwokubira mumwe munyajambwa nemhaka yokuti akawana hake hake ari mumwe wamakororo. Collalteral eemisal e anobatira kudzivirira hurumende pa “kuputsa utsotsi” kupinda mumiedzo inoverengeka.

Kushandiswa Kwoufakazi Mumiedzo Yakatevera: Mutambo Wakawanda

Kunyange apo ngozi dzakapetwa kaviri dzisingadzivisi kupomerwa kwechipiri, nemhaka yokuti pomero dzacho ndedzemhosva dzakasiyana - siyana kana kuti nemhaka yokuti kutonga kwokutanga kwakaguma pasina rutongeso rwokupedzisira — mubvunzo wokuti ufakazii hunobva mukutongwa kwokutanga ungatangwa mukutongwa kwechipiri unoramba uchikosha. Dare rinofanira kudzikamisa ukoshi hunowedzera hwoufakazi hunorwisana nengozi yefungira mano akaipa, zvikurukuru ufakazi uhwo hungakarakadza utsotsi kana kuti mabasa akashata apamberi.

Kazhinji kazhinji, ufakazi hunobva mumuedzo usati watongwa hunogona kushandiswa mukuedza kunotevera kana: (1) pomero dzacho dzakajeka uye dzakapetwa kaviri hadzishandi; (2) ufakazi hunokodzera uye mashoko kunhau yechipiri; uye (3) ukoshi hwahwo hunopfuudzira muuyo upi noupi wokufungira. Zvisinei, kushandiswa kwoufakazi hwakambopiwa ndokurambwa, kana kuti ufakazi uhwo hwakanga huri nhau yomutangiri asina mhaka, hunomutsa itiro hanya chaidzo.

Uchapupu Hwomufambiro Wakanaka

Nhau inomutsa nharo ndeyekuti hurumende ingashandisa ufakazi hwomufambiro uyo mukwirirwi akasunungurwa mukutonga kusati kwaitwa sorutivi rwedare idzva. Dare Rapamusoro rakataura ikoku mu United States v. Watts [1997], richiva nomufambiro wedare rinotonga ungarangarira mufambiro unoparira utsotsi hwakabva pamhosva hwapiwa mhaka kana kuti kutenderwa muchinoitika chakasiana. Pakarepo, mu Dowling v. United States [1990]), Dare rinobvumira kutangwa kwoufakazi hwapari hwapa mhaka hwakaregwa kuti huratidze kana kuti donzo muchinoitika chakasiana, kwenguva refu sezvo mutongi akaraidzwa kuti abviswe utsotsi hunoshanda.

Misi ichangobva kupfuura iyi zvikuru, Dare mu Wiscon v. Mitchell (93) rakabvumira ufakazi hwekutaura kwakadzivirirwa (mashoko apamberi omupomeri) mumhaka youtsotsi yoruvengo, kunyange zvazvo kutaura kumene kwakanga kusiri utsotsi. Chinokosha ndechokuti ufakazi hahushandisi kuranga mufambiro wapakuvamba asi kubvumikisa rutivi rwepomero itsva.

Zvisiiwa uye Mamiriro Ezvinhu Chaiwo

Changamire Akaparadzana Dzidziso

Mudzidziso mbiri youchangamire, zviremera zvakasiyana- siyana (muremo, hurumende dzehurumende nehurumende) zvingatonga munhu mumwe cheteyo nokuda kwomufambiro mumwe chetewo pasina kuputsa njodzi dzakapetwa kaviri. Ikoku kunoreva kuti kuregeredzwa mudare rehurumende hakudzivisi mutongo wehurumende nokuda kwechiito chimwe chetecho, uye zvakasiana. Somuenzaniso, munhu akasunungurwa mumhondi mudare rehurumende anogona kutongerwa mhaka dzoruvengo rwamagariro dzakavakirwa pakuuraya kumwe cheteko. Iyi dzidziso yakashorwa asi inoramba iri pamutemo. Ufakazi mukutonga kwokutanga kazhinji kazhinji kazhinji hunogona kushandiswa mukutonga kwechipiri, kana kuchitsamira pamitemo yedare iroro.

Kugadzirwazve Pashure Pokukwirira Kunobudirira

Apo mukwirirwi anokwidza kutenderwa ndokuhwina donzo rinotenderwa, hurumende inowanzobvumidzwa kutsanangura mukwiridziridziri nokuda kwemhosva imwe cheteyo. Chibvumikiso ndechokuti mukwiridzirwi, kupfurikidza nokufadza, anobvisa dziviriro mukutonga kwechipiri (apo kupfuudzira kukuva kusingabviri ufakazi husina kukwana (hungava kukuva kukanganwika nokuda kwemadonzo maviri). Mudare redare, ufakazi uhwo hwakashandiswa mumuedzo wokutanga hunowanzova husingabvumiki, asi mitemo ipi neipi yakajeka iyo yakanga iri hwaro hwechikwidzo ingatapura icho chinogona kutangwa. Somuenzaniso, kana ufakazi hukanzi hunobvumwa zvisina kufanira, hahugoni kushandiswazve kutoti zvikanganiso zvapamutemo zvakaruramiswa kana kuti uchapupu hukasakodzera.

Kutongwa Kusina Kururama Kana Kuti Kunobviswa

Sezvacherekedzwa, kutongwa kusina kururama nemhaka yedare rinobetsera vatongi vakaturikwa kana kuti kuratidzirwa kunodikanwa kazhinji kazhinji kunobvumidza kutongwazve. Munhau dzakadaro, ufakazi kubva mukutongwa kunobviswa hunogona kudzorerwa. Zvisinei, kana kutongwa kusina kururama kwakaparirwa nomufambiro usina kururama womuchuchisi wakaitirwa kufungira mano akaipa mukwirirwi, dare ringavhara kutongwazve mu “kudenha kwokusaziva” mupimo unobva [[FLT: 0] Oregon v. Kennedy[[FL:1] [19982]

Zvipingamupinyi Zviri Pauchapupu Husati Hwaitika: Zvipingamupinyi Zvinoshanda

Kunyange apo ngozi dzakapetwa kaviri dzisingadzivisi kukwirira, mitemo yakajeka ingaganhurira chinogona kutangwa. Mitemo yeUfakazi (uye mirau yehurumende) inogadza miganhu. Guru 404(b) kazhinji kazhinji inodzivisa ufakazi hwedzimwe mhaka, zvakaipa, kana kuti zviito zvokubvumikisa unhu kana kuti utsotsi. Ufakazi hwakadaro hungava hunodikanwa nokuda kwezvimwe zvinangwa, mikana, kugadzirira, zivo, kuzivikanwa, kana kuti kusavapo kwechikanganiso. Kana muedzo usati waitwa unobatanidzwa unowirirana neizvi zvisingaitwi zvakanaka, ufakazi hunogona kuuya muna hw(8) dare rinofanira kuyera ukoshipi kwezva mamwe madonzo, maererano norusarura mano akaipa mukutonga 403 pasi pokutonga kusina kururama.

Mukuwedzera, mirau inoganhurira kushandiswa kwouchapupu kubva mumuedzo usati watongwa. Kana chapupu chakapupurira mukutonga kwokutanga chikasawanika nokuda kwechipiri, chipupuriro chapamberi chingava chinooneka pasi porusiano rwenzwi rwechapupu chekare (Rule 804(b)(1)), chakagovera mukwiridziridziridzi kuva nebanza nevavariro yakafanana yokuyambuka uchapupu mufambiro wapakuvamba. Ikoku kazhinji kazhinji kunomuka mumikoro pashure pokunge kutenderwa kwadzikiswa.

Mhaka Hurusa dzeDare Dzinoshatisa Mitemo

United States kana kuti Dixon (1990)

Munhau iyi inokosha, Dare Gurusa rakajekesa kushandiswa kwengozi dzakapetwa kaviri kumatare anotevedzana mumirau yakasiana. Dare rakaramba kuti Dare kuedza Blockburger ndiwo mupimo bedzi wokusarudza kana mhaka mbiri dzakafanana nokuda kwezvinangwa zviviri, kuramba “kuedza kumwe cheteko” mumhaka yapakuvamba. Ichi chisarudzo chakaganhurira dziviriro mumativi akati asi chakagovera nhungamiro yakajeka zvikuru nokuda kwavachuchidziridzi nematare.

Corbin (1990)

Munhau iyi, Dare rairangarira kuti ngozi yakapetwa kaviri yakadzivisa kutongwa kwechipiri kwakavakirwa pamufambiro mumwe chetewo kunyange kana masangano emitemo akasiana. Zvisinei, chisarudzo chacho chakanga chisati chararama nguva pfupi; makore matatu gare gare mu United States v. Dixon, Dare raitonga Grady uye rakadzoserwa kumuedzo weBlockburger. Chidzidzo ndechokuti mutemo uri munharaunda ino washanduka uye unopfuurira kukurukurwa.

Ashe v. Sunson (1970)

Nyaya iyi yakatokurukurwa, yakaratidza kuti kuongorora kudzivirira kweFindrefter kwenjodzi mbiri kunoitwa neFindromendment kunodzivisa hurumende kuongororazve mukwirirwi nokuda kwezviitiko zvagara zvichigadziriswa nokuregeredzwa, kunyange kana kupomera kwacho kutsva kwakasiyana.

Zvidzidzo Zvinoshanda Zvokudzivirira Mhosva Nokutambudza

Nokuda kwamagweta anodzivirira, kunzwisisa ngozi dzakapetwa kaviri nemirairo inodzora ufakazi mumiedzo inotevera zvinokosha kudzivirira vatengi pakusvika kumatare. Kana mutengi akasunungurwa, dziviriro inofanira kusvinurira kuedza kupi nokupi kwakaitwa nehurumende kumutsa nhau dzimwe chetedzo mumashoko matsva. Kana mhaka ikaguma mukuedza kusina kururama kana kuti kudzorwa pakukwirira, zano rinofanira kunzvera nokungwarira ufakazi hunogona kubviswa mungozi kana kuti zvimwe mitemo yakajeka. Dzidziso yokudzivirira estone estoppel eeppel inogona kuva chishandiso chine simba chokudzivisa kuiswazve kwamaidi akasarudzwa kare munyashamira womupomeri.

Nokuda kwavachuchisi, iyi mitemo inoda kudzorwa nokungwarira zvisarudzo. Kuunza pomero dzakasiana mumitongo yakasiana inoputsa njodzi dzakapetwa kaviri kunogona kutungamirira kukudzingwa nokupambadzwa kwezviwanikwa. Kunzwisisa blockburger nzvero namaruramiro akasiana zvinobvumira vachuchisi kuronga nhau nenzira yakafanira. Uyezve, pakushandisa ufakazi hwokutongwa kusati kwaitwa, varovereri vemhosva vanofanira kuva nechokwadi chokuwirirana nemitemo yakajeka ndokudzivisa “kuramba pa” ufakazi hwomufambiro usina mhaka uyo ungasaruramisira dare rinobetsera.

Mugumisiro: Kudzikamisa Kururamisira, Kuguma, uye Kutonga

Mitemo yakapoteredza njodzi mbiri nokushandiswa kwoufakazi mumiedzo yakatevera inoratidzira dzikamo yakakomba. Pane rumwe rutivi, chitsama chengozi chakapetwa kaviri chinodzivirira vagari vemo pasimba rinodzvinyirira rehurumende, kuva nechokwadi chokuti kupiwa mhaka kana kuti kupwiswa ndekwechokwadi zvirokwazvo ndekwechokwadi. Kune rumwe rutivi, kupesana kwapamutemo sedzidziso youchangamire huviri, kuongorora pashure pokukanganisa, uye kushandiswa kwoufakazi kubva mumuedzo usati waitwa, zvinobvumira mamiriro ezvinhu kuronda kutevera ruramisiro pasina kuva anodzvinyirirwa zvisina kururama.

Kuisa iyi nzvimbo yakaoma kunoda nzvero yakasimba yomutemo webumbiro remitemo, mipimo yedare rapamusoro, uye mitemo yemitemo inodzora ufakazi. Nyanzvi dzemitemo dzinofanira kuramba dziripo nedudziro dzinochinja, sezvo matare anopfuurira kurondedzera miganhu yeicho chinoumba “mhosva iyoyi” uye ufakazi hungadzoserwazve. Nokuda kwaavo vanofarira fundo huru zvikuru, pfuma inobva ku Cornell Information Institute [ uye [FLT:] Cinstitution Antegit [[FLT]]]

Pakupedzisira, vavariro ndeyokuita ruramisiro zvakanaka - naka — kudzivirira mupomerwi pakutongazve nepo achivimbisa kuti ane mhaka haapukunyuki kupfurikidza nemhosho dzetsika. Chikamu chengozi mbiri, pamwe chete nemitemo yakarongwa nenzira yokungwarira, zvinobatira sechinhu chikuru cheruramisiro youtsotsi munzanga youtongi hwehurumende.