Gadziriro yeChina yeMitemo yeUnited States inodzivirira vagari vemo pakunzvera kusina mufungo uye kubatwa nehosha, uye chinodikanwa chokuti kuchengetwa kwomutemo kuwane maruramiro akavakirwa pachingabvira ndicho chikonzero chedziviriro iyoyo. Mumashoko akapoteredza chenzvero dzemirimo, muitiro wokugadza chisakiso chinobvira wakaoma zvikuru nemhaka yokuti mapango acho akakwirira: kutsvaka kusina kufanira kunogona kutungamirira kudzvinyirira ufakazi uye kupondwa kwapamberi pezvibvumikiso. Kunzwisisa kuti chikonzero chingavakwa sei, kurangarirwa, uye kudenhwa kunotsoropodza sei nokuda kwavachuchi, vamiriri, uye munhu upi noupi anofarira muitiro woutsotsi.

Chii Chinokonzera Kubudirira?

Chisakiso chapamutemo chinonongedzera kukuvapo kwamaidi nemigariro izvo zvingatungamirira munhu ane mufungo kudavira kuti utsotsi hwave huri, hwave huri, kana kuti hwava kuda kuitwa, uye kuti ufakazi hwokuti utsotsi kana kuti kuvhozhokera pachako huri munzvimbo chaiyo. Inzvimbo yapakati pakati penyungerwowo zvayo nemigariro (ihwo husingakwani kururamisa kunzvera() uye ufakazi husingapanikirirwi zvine mufungo, ndiwo mupimo unodikanwa nokuda kwepwiso. Dare gurusa reU.S. rakasimbisa kuti chikonzero chinobvira chinoshanda, chisiri chakavakirwa pahwerengedzo yemigariro, kwete muitiro wakaoma.

Munhau dzakaitika, pfungwa inodzokera shure kumutemo wechiNgezi uye yakapinzwa muGadziro yeChina kudzivisa maruramiro avose nezvinobetsera izvo zvakanga zvabvumira zviremera zveBritain kuitisa nzendo dzokuredza. Mumuitiro wazvino uno, chisakiso sezvingabvira chinobatira secherekedzo pamitemo inoshanda: kunoda mejasitiparati kuhwirudzura ufakazi kusati kwaitika, nokudaro kudzivirira maruramiro akavanzika avanhu vamwe navamwe. Mupimo unochinjika, unobvumira nokuda kwerondedzero nemhedziso dzendangariro dzakafanana, asi unofanira kuvakirwa mumaidi edonzo, kwete mumifungo kana kuti fungidziro.

Manyuko Echisakiso Chinowirirana

Vatarisiri vemitemo vanogona kutanga chisakiso chinobvira kupfurikidza nezviteshi zvinoverengeka zvakasiyana. Kazhinji kazhinji, manyuko mamwe angava akakwana, asi mukushandisa, manyuko akawanda akabatanidzwa kuumba hwaro hwakajeka zvikuru. Manyuko anozivikanwa zvikurusa anobatanidza cherechedzo dzomunhu oga, tsinhiro, ufakazi hwakawanikwa mukunzvera kwakare kwapamutemo, kunzvera, uye kunyange kufemba nzimbe.

Kuchengeta Kwevakuru Vakuru

Nzvero dzakananga dzemapurisa dzinogona kuva ufakazi hwakasimba hwechingabvira. Somuenzaniso, mukuru mukuru anoona munhu achitenga nemaoko munharaunda inozivikanwa yemirimo, uye anogona kunyora zviratidzo zvechishandiso chemirimo (g., kuchinjana kwezvinhu zviduku nokuda kwemari, majangariko, uye kubviswa kwezvinoparira), ane mativi akasimba okudavira kuti mirimo iripo. Nenzira yakafanana, kunhuwirira mbanje, kupiswa kana kuti kusha, kubuda mumotokari kana kuti musha kunogona kugovera sezvinobvira (kubvira) ikoku kwazova kwakaoma zvikuru sezvo kutaura kwapamutemo kwezvokurapa kana kuti varaidzo. Kiyi ndeyokuti mukuru mukuru mukuru anofanira kukwanisa kurondedzera tsinhiro dzakananga, kubatanidza nguva, uye tsika, zvokuti mutongi anogona kuyera kana achizotungamirira munhu ane mufungo kuti angava anokwanisa kurangarira kuti angava anokwanisa kuparira.

Informant Tibumbiro Neaguilar-Spinelli

Mazano anobva kuziviso dzakavanzika ndemamwe manyuko anozivikanwa zvikuru ezvisakiso zvinobvira, asi anouya neitiro hanya dzechakavanzika. Makurukuru, matare akashandisa muedzo wakaitwa na Auilar v. Texas [[64] na[FL:] Spinellib v. United States [FLT] [199] [199] [199], inoda kuti chibvumikiso chaaffidavit chiratidze zvose zviri zviviri hwaro hwezivo nerevo (kuviv) yeda). [[6] Mune chinyorwa chamashoko anozivikanwa. [FLT], funga , kana kuti chinyorwa chakajeka, chinoteverwa namashoko anosaidzwa. Gatesa rinoparira , mapeji anosarira kupfurikidza nokwendengedzero yemashoko anotesa aripoto.[5]

Kunzvera Kwomutemo Kwakare

Ufakazi hunowanwa mukati menzvero yapamutemo, zvakadai sokumira kwemotokari kana kuti kunzvera kwapamuchina, hunogona kuparira chisakiso chinobvira nokuda kwokunzvera kukuru. Somuenzaniso, kana mukuru mukuru akamisa mutyairi nokuda kwokuputswa kwemijaho yemotokari ndokuona mbanje mukuona kwakapfava, kuti nzvero ingaruramisa kunzvera imba yemotokari. Nenzira yakafanana, ufakazi hunowanwa mukati mokunzvera kwokubvuma hunogona kushandiswa kuparira chisakiso chepamutemo chokufukidza nzvimbo dzokuwedzera. Surveillance face inoratidzira shanyo pfupi kumusha pamaawa mashoma, yakabatanidzwa nokudhonza marara ayo anozivisa chisarira chemirimo, zvinogonawo kuva chisakiso chinobvira.

Masniff

Madoghetsi chishandiso chechienzi mukunzvera mirimo. Dare Rapamusoro rakaitwa mu United States v. Nzvimbo (1903) kuti kufemba mitoro munzvimbo yavose hakuumbi “nzvenga” pasi peGrandment yeChina, naizvozvo hapana murairo unodikanwa. Zvisinei, kana imbwa yakasvinura, inogona kupa chisakiso chinobvira chesitatisimu yokunzvera mudziyo kana kuti motokari. Nenzira inokosha, kuvimbika kwembwa kunofanira kusimbiswa: mukuru mukuru anofanira kugovera ufakazi hwerovedzo yembwa necreging, zvakanaka sechinyorwa chayo chengwariro dzayo dzengwariro dzakarurama.

Kuvaka Chisakiso Chinogombedzera Chavarwi Vemirimo

Apo kuchengetwa kwomutemo kunoshanda nokuda kwetsamba inonzvera zvikurukuru nokuda kwemirimo — kunyange nokuda kwemusha, motokari, kana kuti munhu — murwi anofanira kunyorwa nokungwarira. Mukuru mukuru anofanira kurondedzera nzvimbo yacho kuti inzverwe nechaimo (mutoo., “imba mbiri dzezvichena pa 123Main Street, kubatanidza garaji nezvivako zvipi nezvipi” uye zvinhu zvinotsvakwa (umr.,“ cocaine, zvinhu zvemirimo, marekodhi emirimo, zvinodhaka, miraundi yemirimo, uye mari”. Hwaro hwechokwadi hunofanira ipapo kutsanangura chikonzero nei mukuru mukuru wacho achidavira kuti zvinhu izvozvo zviripo sezvingabvira.

Muzvinoitika zvemirimo, mitoo mitatu yamaidi inowanzotsigira chisakiso chinobvira: kuvapo kwehwema hwema mirimo, ufakazi hwemirimo inocherekedzwa navakuru vakuru kana kuti vamirimo vanovhara, uye ufakazi chaihwo hwakadai sezvinhu zvemirimo kana kuti zvokuisa zvinhu. Madare akagamuchirawo ufakazi kubva ku “trash anokweva tsvina yakaraswa”.(*) kunzvera kwapamutemo kwemarara akaraswa pamite inosirwa pamite. Nemhaka yokuti vanhu havana tariro ine mufungo yokuva vogaro mumarara yakasiyiwa nokuda kwokuunganidzwa. Mabhii anowanwa mumarara anoratidza kushandiswa kwemirimo kana kuti kutengeswa (g., mabhegisi ane zvisaririra, matsa, magaro) anogona kubatanidza humwe ufakazi kusimbisa chisakiso chinobvira.

Chimwe chinoitika chinozivikanwa navose chinobatanidza “nhau yokutakura mirimo,” umo vakuru vakuru vanotsvaka mufambiro wakati kuti hungada kufanana nerutyo, mitoo yechienzi yokufamba, zvitsama zvikuru zvemari, kana kuti nhau dzinopesana(ukumba kunyumwira kune mufungo), ipapo shandisa imwe nzvero kukwidziridza ikoko kuchimwe chikonzero. Zvisinei, matare anongwarira: achitsamira chose chose pachimiro chisina ufakazi hwakasimba chingava chisina kukwana.

Gadziriro Yokushandisa Inokurudzira

Kuti awane rugwaro rwokutsvaka, mukuru mukuru anofanira kuisa mutongo wakapikirwa kumutongi kana kuti mutongi. Mutongi anofanira kunyora maidi anotanga chisakiso chinobvira, uye mukuru mukuru wacho haafaniri kuisa namaune kana kuti kusangwarira maidi ezvokutsvaka (] mupimo ). Mutongi ipapo anozvimirira anofanira kuhwirudzurazve affidavit uye, kana akakwaniswa naiko kuparira kuvapo, anoisa maruramiro acho. Uyu “chidimburo chapamutemo idziviriro yehwa. Kana mutongi akawana proccidatedhu. Chibvumikiso chinoratirwa kurambwa, uye mutemo unofanira kuunganidza ufakazi hwakapfuurwa kana kuti zvimwe kunzvera.

Nguva chisakisowo: zvibvumikiso zvinowanzova bedzi zvinoshanda kwenguva yakaganhurirwa(kazhinji kazhinji mazuva 10) uye anofanira kuurawa mukati mamaawa emasikati kutoti achibvumirwa nenzira yakananga. Mukuru mukuru anoita rugwaro anofanira kugogodza ndokuzivisa kuvapo kwavo vasati vapinda, kutoti migariro yakakomba yairuramisa kusapinda kwekabhodhi. Kukundikana kunamatira kuizvi zvinodikanwa kungatungamirira kukudzvinyirirwa kwoufakazi hupi nohupi hwabatwa.

Vakasiyana Nevanhu Vanofanira Kuteerera Mutemo Usingarambidzwi

Nepo chisakiso sezvingabvira chiri mupimo wokuwana rugwaro, mutemo unobvuma mhatsa dzinoverengeka dzinobvumira kunzvera kusina kukodzera apo chisakiso chinobvira chiripo. izvi zvinodzikamisa kudikanwa kwokuchengetwa kwomutemo kunobudirira mukurwisana namaruramiro akavanzika omunhu oga. Muzvinoitika zvemirimo, kusiyana zvikurusa mamiriro ezvinhu asina kujeka, kubvumira, chiono chakajeka, uye kusiiwa kwemotokari.

Migariro Yakaoma

Mamiriro ezvinhu akaoma anenge aripo apo mamiriro ezvinhu ekurumidziro anoda chiito chokukurumidza kudzivisa kuparadzwa kwoufakazi, kunzvenga ufakazi, kana kuti kuvadziko kumumwe munhu. Somuenzaniso, kana vakuru vakuru vakanzwa chimbudzi chichipinda mukati memusha pashure pokugogodza ndokuzivisa, vangamanikidza kupinda kudzivisa anonyumwirwa kupinza mirimo. Nenzira yakafanana, kurondwa kwokukurumidza kwomunyumwiri anotiza kungaruramisa kupinda pasina maruramiro. Mukuru mukuru anofanira kukwanisa kujekesa maidi ane revo anopa mvuko.

Kunzvera Kuchibvumirwa

Kunzvera kwakavakirwa pabvumiro yokuzvidira ndokwakasiana nezvose zviri zviviri chinodikanwa nechinodikanwa chinobvira. Kana munhu achiziva uye nokuzvidira akabvumira mapurisa kunzvera musha wavo, motokari, kana kuti zvinhu, ufakazi hupi nohupi hunowanwa hunogona kushandiswa mudare. Zvisinei, hurumende inofanira kubvumikisa kuti mvumo yacho haina kumanikidzwa uye kuti munhu wacho ane chiremera chokubvuma. Mapurisa anowanzotsamira pakubvuma apo anenge asina chisakiso chinobvira, asi anofanira kuvimbisa nhau yacho kunzwisisa maruramiro awo.

Murangariro Wakajeka

Mune murangariro wakajeka wedzidziso, mukuru mukuru wemapurisa anotarisira mutemo angawana ufakazi pasina maruramiro kana mukuru mukuru wacho akaiswa pamutemo (muchirevo, mukati mokumira kwemotokari kana kuti achipa chibvumirano nokuda kwechimwe mhaka) uye achiona bhindi kana kuti ufakazi mukuona kwajeke. Nokuda kwenhau dzemirimo, ikoku kazhinji kazhinji kunomuka apo mukuru mukuru mukuru anodzora anomisa motokari ndokuona bhegi reupfu huchena pachigaro, kana kuti mukati mokufamba mumusha une maruramiro opamutemo echinhu chinobiwa apo mukuru mukuru mukuru anoona zvisa zvemirimo. Munofanira kuva nechisakiso chokudavira chinhu chacho chinenge chakavhengana kushatiswa pasina kunzvera.

Chinjo Yemotokari

Kusiiwa kwemotokari kunobvumira mapurisa kunzvera motokari pasina rugwaro. United States (1925) uye [[FLT]] ine ufakazi hweutsotsi. Chinoparirwa ndechokuti motokari dzinofamba uye dzinogona kubviswa pasati pawanikwa pamutemo. Munyasi Carroll v. United States [1925] [[FLT]] [United States] v. Ross [1982], vakuru vakuru vanganzvera motokari yose, kubatanidza mabhokisi akavharwa, kana vane chikonzero chakabvira kufunga kuti mirimo mukati . Uku kushatisa kushambadzira zvinodhaka: kana imbwa yakachenurira pamotokari yemotokari, uye pasina chisakiso chinodikanwa nokuda kwokunzvera.

Migumisiro Yezvinokonzera Zvisina Kukodzera

Kana dare gare gare rikasarudza kuti rugwaro rwakapiwa pasina chisakiso chinobvira, kana kuti kunzvera kusina pamutemo kwakanga kusina kutsarukana, ufakazi hunowanikwa hunodzorwa nomutemo unobvisa. Mumutemo uyu, ufakazi haugoni kushandiswa pakutonga, uye mhaka yacho ingaparara. Mukwirirwi anogona kuita chiito chokudzvinyirira, achinyandura mutongo umo mutongi anenge abvisazve mutongo kana kuti migariro yokutsvaka. Kana mukuru mukuru mukuru wacho akabatanidza kutaura kwenhema nenzira yokusangwarira kana kuti namaune, zvirango zvakakomba zvingashanda. Nenzira yakapesana, kana mukuru mukuru wacho akaita zvakanaka pakutenda icho gare gare gare akawanikwa asina kururama, “kutenda kwakanaka kungabvumira ufakazi kushatiswa kana akasashandisa mukuru mukuru mukuru anonyedzwa.

Nokuda kwamagweta anodzivirira, kudenha hwaro hunobvira inzira huru. Zvinetso zvinowanzobatanidza kudenha kuvimbika kwavazivisi, kutaura kuti cherechedzo dzomukuru mukuru dzakanga dzisina kujeka zvikuru, kana kuti kuratidza kuti kufemba imbwa kwakanga kusina kuvimbika. Kutambisa kwokudzvinyirira kunobudirira kunogona kuva musiano pakati pepwindizo nokudzingwa.

Kurangarira Kunoshanda Kwokugombedzerwa Kwomutemo Navagari Vako