Chepfuwo Isingaperi: Nhoroondo uye Kushanduka - shanduka Kwedziviriro Dziviriro Dzakapetwa Kaviri muMutemo weAmerica

Nheyo yenjodzi mbiri dzinomira seimwe yedziviriro dzinodziviswa zvikurusa mumutemo wetsotsi weAmerica. Inovimbisa kuti hakuna munhu achaedzwa kanopfuura kamwe nokuda kwemhosva imwe cheteyo inofungidzirwa, dziviriro yakarongedzerwa kudzivisa kutsotswa kwehurumende, kudzivirira chiremera chomunhu oga, uye kuva nechokwadi chokuti zviitiko zvapamutemo ndezvokupedzisira. Nyaya inonotora midzi yakadzika yengozi kubva pamavambo ayo emitemo yeChirungu, kupfurikidza nokunyumwiswa kwayo muFind Find Amendment, kududziro dzechinjo dzemazuva ano dzinopfuurira kuumba miganhuro yayo.

Kunzwisisa ngozi yakapetwa kaviri kunokosha nokuda kwomunhu upi noupi anofunda muitiro woutsotsi weAmerica, mutemo webumbiro remitemo, kana kuti rutivi rukurusa rwekodzero dzavanhu. Hachisi mutemo wakasiana asi dzidziso mhenyu yokuti matare akanatsa mumhinduro kuzvinhu zvitsva zvoruzivo, kubva munzvero dzenhema uye sundo kutsinhirano pakati pehurumende navakuru vakuru venyika. Kupfurikidza nokunzvera nhau yayo nemhindumupindu, tinowana nzwisiso mukudzikamisa kunoita fariro yehurumende mukuedza utsotsi mumaruramiro omunhu kurudzokororo rwokupedzisira norusununguko mukunetsa kunodzokororwa kunodzokororwa.

Mavambo Omutemo WechiNgezi

Murangariro wengozi mbiri hauna kutanga zvizere kubva pakuvambwa kweAmerica. Ruvara rwayo runodzokera shure kusvikira kumakore eMiddle England, umo pfungwa yokuti munhu haafaniri kuedzwa kaviri nokuda kwemhosva imwe cheteyo yakatanga pashoma napashoma murwisano pakati pechiremera choumambo nekodzero dzetsika. matare apakuvamba eEngland akaziva chikumbiro chinozivikanwa se [ aurectis Confict [ (aiwaiwanwa pachena) uye mutongi wemhosva [[FLT]], achibvumira mukwidziridziridziridzi kuti awe mhaka kupfurikidza nokuratidza kuti akanga atotongwa papomero yechipiri.

Pakasvika zana ramakore rechigumi namanomwe, mutemo wavose weEngland wakanga watanga mutemo wakaoma mukurwisana nengozi mbiri, kunyange zvazvo wakanga usiri wakakwana. Kuedza kwakaipa kwaSir Thomas More muna 1535, somuenzaniso, kwakaenzanisira kuvadziko yenheyo apo vezvamatongerwe enyika vachanyanyisa gamuchidzanwa rapamutemo. Kunyanguvezvo, pfungwa yakabatwa sorutivi rwenhaka huru yeEngland yekodzero, kubatanidza maruramiro aMagna Carta anovimbisa kuti hakuna munhu akasununguka aizorangwa kunze kwerutongeso rwapamutemo rwevezera rake. Apo vadzorwi vaiyambuka Atlantic, vakatakura aya magamuchidzanwa emitemo navo.

America Yaiva Mudzori Wenyika Ne Amendedzero Yechishanu

MuAmerica inodzorwa nehurumende, dziviriro dzengozi dzakapetwa kaviri dzakavapo zvikurukuru kupfurikidza nomutemo wavose panzvimbo pegadziriro dzakananga dzemitemo kana kuti dzebumbiro remitemo. Makoroni anoverengeka, zvisinei, akaedzwa nevimbiso dzakanyorwa. Massachusetts Body of Liberasies ya 1641, somuenzaniso, yakazivisa kuti "hapana munhu achaedzwa kaviri nokuda kwemhosva imwe cheteyo." aya mashoko apakuvamba akaratidzira murangariro unowedzera wokuti simba rokutonga rinofanira kuganhurirwa.

Pashure peRevolution, rudzi rutsva rwakatarisana nebasa rokuvaka hurumende yehurumende ine masimba ehurumende akaverengwa. Iri Bhishopi yekodzero, yakatenderwa muna 1791, yakanga yakaitirwa kumanikidza hurumende iyoyo. Gadziriro yeshanu yakabatanidza chitsama chengozi chakapetwa kaviri mumutsetse wayo wokupedzisira: "Hapana munhu upi noupi achaiswa mungozi imwe cheteyo kuti aitwe kaviri youpenyu kana kuti makumbo." Mashoko aya akanyorwa zvakananga kubva kumutemo wechiNgezi, asi revo yawo chaiyo yaizotora mazana amakore kuti anyatsotsanangurwa.

Kunokosha kucherekedza kuti chitsama chetsono mbiri chakashandiswa pakuvamba bedzi kuhurumende yehurumende yehurumende. Kwete kutozosvikira 1969, mu Benton v. Maryland, ko Dare Rapamusoro raibatanidza chitsama chinorwisana nehurumende kupfurikidza neMitemo yeMinethi Yevhure. Chisarudzo ichocho chakaita dziviriro yacho maruramiro anokosha anoshanda munzvimbo iri yose muUnited States, ichikudza zvikuru kusvika kwayo.

Dzidziso Dzapamutemo Dzakakomba Nenhau Dzapanyika

Changamire Akaparadzana

Chimwe chezvisingabvumiki zvikuru, chinomutsa nharo,((na)) kududzira njodzi mbiri idzidziso yakasiyana yamadzimambo. Mumutemo uyu, hurumende yehurumende nehurumende imwe neimwe zvinorangarirwa kuva zvigaro zvakasiana. Naizvozvo, chiito chimwe chinoputsa zvose zviri zviviri mutemo wehurumende nehurumende chinogona kutongwa namambo mumwe nomumwe pasina kushandisa njodzi mbiri. Dare Rapamusoro rakasimbisa iyi nheyo mu United States v. Lanza [195]] (1922) uye gare gare [[FLT:]] Barkus v.Illinois [1959]] na [[FLT:]]

Murangariro ndowokuti mufambiro mumwe chetewo ungaumba mhaka mbiri dzakasiana mukurwisana nemapoka maviri omutemo. Vatsoropodzi vanotaura kuti ikoku kunogona kutungamirira kukukwidziridza kunodzokororwa kunodzvinyirira, zvikurukuru munhau dzakakwirira. Dare Rapamusorosoro rakasimbisazve dzidziso mu Ghostry v. United States [2029]), rina kutarisisa ikoko decisis kwakada kushandiswa kwaro kunopfuuridzirwa, pasinei zvapo nokukura nokuda kwokurambwa kwayo.

Apo Kuora Mwoyo Kunoisa Pamberi

Kudzivirirwa panjodzi mbiri bedzi kunovamba bedzi njodzi yangova yaka “batanidzwa. ” Nokuda kwokutongwa kwedare rinobetsera vatongi, ngozi dzinobatanidzwa apo vatongi vanoiswa panzvimbo yavose uye vanopikirwa. Nokuda kwokutongwa kwebhenji, kunonamatira apo chapupu chokutanga chinopikirwa. Iyi nguva inogona kusarudza kana kutonga kwechipiri kwakarambidzwa kana kuti kuchibvumirwa.

Mu Crist v. Bretz [788], Dare Gurusa rakataura kuti mutemo wehurumende webatano unoshanda zvakaenzana kunyika kupfurikidza nePramende ye14. Iyi chisarudzo chakavimbisa kuva akafanana mukurondedzera nguva inotambudza apo nhovo yakapetwa kaviri inokwira.

Kusabudirira Kwenyaya uye Kukwezva

Chii chinoitika apo kutonga kunoguma nguva isati yasvika nemhaka yemhosva kana kuti apo mukwirirwi anofadza nenzira inobudirira kupwiswa? Mhinduro dzinogona kujekeswa. Mukwiridzirwi anogona kudzorwa pashure pekutongwa zvisina kururama kana mutongi akazivisa mhaka isina kururama nemhaka ye "ichinodikanwa"" yakadai sedare rinobetsera zvikuru kana kuti dare gurusa rapadare rapamutemo rakaiswa pamutemo rakaiswa pamutemo kana kuti dare guru. Mumhaka yegore [FLT] United States v. Perez [1824], Dare Rapamusoro rairangarira kuti dare rinobetsera rinobetsera dare rinoratidzira muenzaniso wakatanhamara wechinodikanwa, richibvumira kugarudzo pasina kukanganisa kuvirika.

Asi kana muchuchisi akaparira nenzira isina kururama namaune kuparira kutongwa kuwana betsero yamanomano, kutongwazve kungarambidzwa. Mu Oregon v. Kennedy [1982], Dare rinogadza danda rakakwirira: bedzi apo muchuchisi anoita donzo rokunyandura mhaka nevavariro yokukanganisa kuchaparira njodzi yakapetwa kaviri. Mupimo muduku unodzivirira fariro yehurumende mukuedzazve apo inoisa mutongo wakaipa zvikurusa.

Apo mukwirirwi anokwidza kutenderwa ndokuhwina, mutemo wavose ndowokuti kutongwazve kunobvumirwa, sezvo njodzi yapakuvamba isina kupera. Zvisinei, Bumbiro reMitemo rinorambidza kutongwazve kana dare redare redare rikawana ufakazi husingakwani kutsigira chisarudzo. Mu Burks v. United States [10978]), Dare rakati kuchinjwa kwakavakirwa paufakazi husina kukwana kunoenzana nokuzvinyima, nokudaro muganhu unovanzanisazve.

Zvirango Zvinoverengeka uye Kuedzwa Kwevatadzi

Chikamu chenhau chengozi mbiri chinodzivirirawo zvirango zvakawanda nokuda kwemhosva imwe cheteyo. Mubvunzo mukuru unowanzova kana zvirongwa zviviri zvemitemo zvichirondedzera mhaka imwe cheteyo kana kuti dzakasiyana. Dare Rapamusorosakatanga kunzvera kwomupimo mu stamburger v. United States [1932]): kana mutemo mumwe nomumwe uchida chibvumikiso chechinhu chimwe icho mumwe asingaitiri, ipapo iwo mhosva dzakasiana, uye zvirango zvakawanda zvinobvumirwa. Kana mutemo mumwe uchibatanidza mhaka duku, kupomera nokuda kwezvose zviri zviviri kukanganisa njodzi.

Iyi muedzo wakashandiswa mumigariro isingaverengeki, kubva pakutengesa mirimo kusvikira kukukorovhera. Zvisinei, Dare rakazivawo kuti vagari vemitemo vanogona kubvumira zvakajeka zvirango zvakawanda nokuda kwomufambiro mumwe chetewo mumirau yakasiana - siana, chero bedzi kuri pachena kuti vanoda kubata mufambiro wacho semhosva dzakasiana. Ivavariro iyoyo inhau yourongwa hwemitemo, kwete murairo webumbiro remitemo.

Mabharagisi uye Utera Huviri

Ruzhinjisa rwemhosva dzoutsotsi runopedzwa kupfurikidza nokukumbira, kwete kutonga. Ko ngozi yakapetwa kaviri inodzivirira mukwiridziri anoteterera ane mhaka here?

Humwe hunokosha ndirwo rurambidzo padare pashure pokunge mukwiridziri atorangwa nokuda kwomufambiro mumwe chetewo muchata. Somuenzaniso, kana munhu akasunungurwa pautsotsi, havagoni gare gare kutongwa nokuda kwemhosva duku inobatanidzwa. Mutemo iwoyo wakasimbiswa zvakasimba mu Green v. United States [1957], iyo yairangarira kuti kupiwa mhaka pamireza mikuru inotongwazve pahove.

Kududzira Kwemazuva Ano uye Mapokani Azvino Uno

Kuiswa Kwemari Munzvimbo Dzokugara Nemabhangi

Imwe yenzvimbo dzinokwikwidzana zvikurusa mumutemo wazvino uno wengozi dzakapetwa kaviri ndeyokuti kurasikirwa nechinhu kana kuti zvimwe zvirango zvisiri zvoutsotsi zvinogona kuumba chirango chechipiri. Mu United States v. Ursery (1996], Dare Gurusa rakataura kuti kurasikirwa nechinhu kunoitwa navagari vemo mumubato mukuita utsotsi hakusati kuri kuparira ngozi yakapetwa nakaviri. Icho chisarudzo chakapedza kukamukana mumatare akaderera, asi vatsoropote zvinotaura kuti kuparadzwa kwavanhu kunogona kuva kwokutsiva mashandiro, zvikurukuru apo ukoshi hwezvinhu hwakarasika hunoshatiswa zvikuru kuva njodzi inoparirwa.

Nenzira yakafanana, zvirango zvokutarisira zvakadai sokubviswa kwerezenisi kana kuti kubviswa kwezvibvumirano zvehurumende hazviwanzorangarirwa sechirango nokuda kwezvinangwa zvengozi zvakapetwa kaviri, kunyange kana zvikatevera kupwiswa kwoutsotsi nokuda kwomufambiro mumwe chetewo. Dare rakashandisa kuedza kwakawanda kutsauranisa pakati pezvirango zvehurumende neutsotsi, richinangidzira ngwariro pakuti chirango chacho chinoshanda kugadziridzo, kwete chinangwa chokuranga.

Kupfuurira Kwemiviri uye Ngozi Huviri

Kushandiswa kwengozi mbiri kururamisiro yepwere kwachinja zvikuru. Mu Breed v. Jones [1875], Dare Gurusa rakataura kuti fungidziro yepwere yokusateerera mutemo inoumba "kupara mhosva" iyo yakasungirwa utsotsi gare gare nokuda kwemhosva imwe cheteyo. Dare rakarangarira kuti ngozi yokurasikirwa norusununguko munhau dzepwere yakakomba zvakakwana kubvumira dziviriro yakapetwa kaviri. Iyi mhaka yakaratidzira nhano huru mukuziva maruramiro emitemo epwere dzinotarisana nechiito chimwe chete.

Kuwedzera Mitongo Yemhosva Nemitemo Yokuurayana

Ngozi mbiri kazhinji kazhinji hadzidzivisi mutongi kuisa tongero yakakomba yakavakirwa pazvitendero zvakatangira, kunyange kana zvitendero zvakatangira zvimene zvakanga zviri nhau yemhosva dzapakuvamba. Mitemo yeRedivicist inozivikanwa navose uye yakatsigirwa seshandiso yapamutemo yesimba romutemo. Zvisinei, Dare rakarangarira kuti hurumende haigoni kusuma ufakazi hwekupwiswa kwapamberi pekutongwa nokuda kwamadonzo akaderera kana kupwiswa ikoko kwakanga kusati kuri kwokupedzisira panguva yemhosva yapanguva ino.Izvinovimbisa kuti hurumende haisati ichishandisa pomero yapamhovero yomutemo sechombo kuti iwawawawawawandurirwa papomero itsva.

Kukumbira Kuchinja Kungaitwa

Zvigaro zvakasiana zvinoramba zviri rutivi runotsoropodzwa zvikurusa rwomutemo wazvino uno wengozi mbiri. Mutongi Ginsburg, asingabvumirani mu Gugudge v. United States, akarangarira kuti dzidziso yacho inosekesa ukoshi hukuru hwengozi dzakapetwa kaviri nemhaka yokuti inobvumira hurumende ku "edza kurwadzisa mumwe munhu kaviri nokuda kwoutsotsi humwe chetehwo" kupfurikidza nokungoparadzanisa simba pakati pehurumende dzehurumende nehurumende. Dzimwe nyika dzakaedza kuganhurira dzidziso kupfurikidza nomutemo, asi mutemo wehurumende usati waita basa rakadaro. Zvitendero zveDare rokubvisa muitiro wacho zvakamutsidzirwa mumakore achangobva kupfuura, asi hapana chiito chemitemo chakabudirira.

Imwe nharaunda yekurukurirano inobatanidza "uchangamire hwechienzi" kunze kwokutongwa kunotevedzana kunoitwa nenyika mbiri dzakasiana. Nepo Dare Rapamusorosoro risina kutaura zvakananga chinoitika ichocho, matare maduku anowanzoshandisa mufungo wakasiana wokutonga kubvumira kukwidziridzwa kupfurikidza namaruwa akawanda nokuda kwomufambiro mumwe chetewo. Ikoku kunogona kuparira basa rakaganhurirwa rokuzvidavirira uye kumutsa itiro hanya dzakakomba, zvikurukuru apo hurumende dzinotsinhiranisa kunzvera kwavo.

Maonero Anoita Nyika Dzose

Dziviriro dzengozi dzakapetwa kaviri dzinosiana munyika yose. Nyika dzakawanda, kubatanidza Canada neUnited Kingdom, hadziteveri dzidziso yakasiana yazvigaro. MuEuropean Union, nheyo ye bis muimor kazhinji kazhinji] dzinosunga kusungwa kwechipiri kwechiito chimwe chetecho kana kutonga kwokupedzisira kwangoitwa nehurumende ipi neipi iri mutezo. United States inoramba iri inoisvo zvikuru mukubvumidza kukwirira kukwirira kwakawanda, idi rakakwevera ngwariro kukodzero dzavanhu uye nyanzvi dzemitemo dzinowirirana.

Kunzwisisa idzi mitoo yamarudzi ose kunogona kuzivisa chinjo dzinobvira mumutemo weAmerica. Dzimwe nyanzvi dzemitemo dzakakarakadza mutemo wehurumende waizoisa mhaka muhurumende pashure pokurovererwa mhaka kwehurumende nokuda kwomufambiro mumwe chetewo, kutoti fariro yehurumende yakasimba zvikuru. Vamwe vakarangarira kuti Dare Rapamusoro Zvikuru redare rinofanira kukurira kutonga dandag v. United States ndokudavira kuti njodzi yacho imene inodzivisa kudenha hurumende kunoteverwa.

mhedziso

Chitsama chenjodzi mbiri chinoramba chiri dziviriro inokosha mugadziriro yemitemo yetsotsi yeAmerica. Inodzivisa hurumende kushandisa pfuma yayo huru kuderedza vakwirirwi kupfurikidza nokuedza kunodzokororwa, inoremekedza kuguma kwerutongeso, uye inotsigira nheyo yokuti munhu haafaniri kumanikidzwa kurarama mutyisidziro yenguva dzose yokutambudzwazve. Asi sezvingaratidzwa nenyaya ino, chitsama hachisi chinhu chaicho. Kushandiswa kwayo kunochinja mitemo yemifungo yetsika dzokubatanidza, tsananguro yemhosva imwe cheteyo, uye kuzivikanwa kwemutongi anodzorwa.

Nokuda kwavadzidzi navadzidzisi vomutemo webumbiro remitemo, njodzi dzinopa fundo huru mukuti rugwaro rwebumbiro remitemo rupfupi zvikuru runogona sei kuparira mazana amakore okududzira. Kubatanidzwa pakati pokutendeseka kwenhau, chinodikanwa chinoshanda, uye mirangariro inotsinhirana neruramisiro zvinopfuurira kuumba dzidziso. Sezvo zvimiro zvitsva zvokushumwa . zvakadai senhau dzomubatanidzwa dzakawanda kana kuti masimba ehurumende anokamuraniswa ebasa rehurumende jekiseni, matare achakumbirwa kuchenesa miganhu zvakare.

Pakupedzisira, dziviriro yenjodzi mbiri haisati ichingova zvayo mutemo wetsika; iratidzirwo yomusengwa wakadzama kuhurumende yakaganhurirwa. Inovimbisa kuti pashure pokunge hurumende yava nebanza rayo rakazara nerisingasaruri rokubvumikisa kuva nemhaka, inofanira kumira. Musengwa iwoyo unoramba uchikosha nhasi sezvawaiva apo Findmerment yakatanga kuitwa.