Table of Contents

Kufahamu mabadiliko ya tano na kufikia

Marekebisho ya Tano ya Katiba ya Marekani yanasema kwamba hakuna mtu atakaye "kuwekwa chini ya kosa moja" mara mbili katika hatari ya maisha au limb." Kanuni hii ya msingi, inayojulikana kama hatari mara mbili, imeundwa kuzuia serikali kutoka mara kwa mara kumshtaki mtu kwa uhalifu huo huo unaodaiwa baada ya haki halali au imani. Hata hivyo, lugha inayoonekana wazi ya marekebisho ya sheria imetoa kuongezeka kwa mwili tata wa sheria, na tofauti kubwa katika tafsiri na matumizi katika majimbo ya 50, Wilaya ya Columbia, na maeneo ya wahalifu, kwa watendaji wa sheria na Marekani, ambayo ni ya kutosha.

Mafundisho ya Utawala wa Mbili: Kutenganisha Sovereigns, Kutenganisha Kesi

Moja ya nuances muhimu zaidi katika sheria ya hatari mbili ni mafundisho ya uhuru wa shirikisho[FLT: 1]]. Chini ya kanuni hii, serikali ya shirikisho na kila serikali ya serikali inachukuliwa kuwa huru.Kwa hiyo, tendo ambalo linakiuka sheria za shirikisho na serikali linaweza kuhukumiwa na kila mamlaka bila kukiuka kifungu cha hatari cha Double Jeopardy. Kwa mfano, mtu aliyeachiliwa mashtaka ya mauaji ya serikali bado anaweza kuhukumiwa katika mahakama ya shirikisho kwa ukiukaji wa haki za kiraia kutokana na fundisho hilo hilo hilo hilo hilo lilithibitishwa na mahakama kuu ya Marekani, [Fstanding] katika kesi za kisheria, kama vile [Vi][4][4][4][4][[[4]

Jinsi Nchi Zinazoingiliana na Codify Jeopardy Double: Kazi ya Patch ya Ulinzi

Wakati Marekebisho ya Tano yanaweka sakafu ya kikatiba, majimbo ni huru kutoa ulinzi mpana zaidi kuliko kiwango cha chini cha shirikisho. Baadhi ya majimbo yameweka haki za hatari mbili katika katiba zao au sheria, wakati wengine hutegemea sana sheria ya kesi. Chini ni uchunguzi wa kina wa tofauti muhimu katika majimbo ya wawakilishi.

California ya California

California kwa ujumla inazuia kesi baada ya acquittal au imani, sambamba na ulinzi wa shirikisho. Hata hivyo, hali ina wazi isipokuwa nuanced. Chini ya sheria ya California, kama mtuhumiwa ana hatia ya kosa mdogo ni pamoja na kosa, wanaweza bado wanakabiliwa na mashtaka makubwa kama hukumu ya awali ni kufutwa kwa rufaa. Zaidi ya hayo, California inaruhusu kesi wakati kesi ya jinai ni alitangaza kwa sababu ya lazima wazi - kama vile jopo la kupachikwa. Mahakama Kuu ya California pia imeshughulikia "matendo sawa" dhidi ya "majaribio sawa", mara nyingi kutumia kiwango cha mshtakiwa-kirafiki zaidi kuliko kesi nyingine ambayo ina maana ya kawaida ya kufuta kesi hiyo kutoka kwa sababu ya jinai.

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Texas is known for its broad interpretation of double jeopardy protections. The Texas Constitution explicitly bars a person from being “twice put in jeopardy for the same offense.” Texas courts have applied this protection aggressively, particularly in cases where the state attempts to retry a defendant after a mistrial. Retrial is generally allowed only if the mistrial was caused by prosecutorial or judicial misconduct that was not provoked by the defense. In cases of manifest necessity—like a deadlocked jury—retrial is permitted. Texas also recognizes the “same transaction” test, meaning that multiple charges from a single criminal event may be considered the same offense unless each requires proof of a distinct element not required by the others.

New York ya New York

New York mara mbili ya hatari ya ulinzi ni kwa kiasi kikubwa codified katika yake Sheria ya Uhalifu wa Jinai. jimbo ifuatavyo shirikisho "vitengo" mtihani kutoka Blockburger v. Marekani[FLT:] lakini anaongeza tabaka za ziada. New York inaruhusu retrial baada ya kesi kama mtuhumiwa alikubali au kama kulikuwa na haja ya kisheria. Muhimu, New York ina utoaji wa kipekee kwamba inaruhusu serikali kukata rufaa kufukuzwa kwa mashtaka (katika hali ya mdogo) bila kukiuka mara mbili ya ngozi ya tahadhari ya umma.

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Florida ya mara mbili kuhatarisha sheria ni umbo na wote wawili katiba yake na sheria ya kina kesi. Mahakama Kuu ya Florida ina uliofanyika kwamba mara mbili hatari ulinzi kuomba makosa tofauti tu kama wao kutokea kutoka sawa jinai kitendo au shughuli. Hata hivyo, Florida inaruhusu adhabu ya nyongeza kwa ajili ya tofauti mwathirika makosa ndani ya shughuli moja. tofauti mashuhuri: Florida vibali retrial baada ya hukumu ni reversed kutokana na kosa la kesi, lakini baa retrial kama reversal ni msingi juu ya ushahidi wa kutosha. hii inaambatana na sheria ya shirikisho, lakini pia inatambua finyu ya Florida kwa ajili ya mahakama-kulipa kodi-kulipa kodi-kulipa kodi-kulipa kodi-kulipa kodi ya kesi kesi kesi kesi kesi kesi, "kulipa" mfano wa adhabu ya kesi "kulipa".

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Illinois hutoa ulinzi wa hatari mara mbili chini ya katiba yake ya serikali na Sheria za Ushindani za Illinois. jimbo linatumia mtihani "ushahidi sawa", likiuliza kama ushahidi huo utaendeleza mashtaka yote mawili. mahakama za Illinois zimezuia mashtaka ya mfululizo kwa mashtaka tofauti yanayotokana na mwenendo mmoja, hata ikiwa yanahusisha mambo tofauti. Aidha, sheria ya Illinois inakataza kesi wakati kesi ya awali ilisitishwa kwa sababu ya hoja ya utetezi yenye mafanikio kwa kesi ya msingi wa mashtaka ya juu ya uendeshaji (isipokuwa mtuhumiwa alikubali), pia ina sheria ya kipekee ambayo inashikilia mara mbili katika kesi ya kwanza ambayo inashikilia ushahidi wa mahakama, ambayo mara moja tu katika mahakama ya kwanza ni shahidi wa mahakama, ambayo inashikilia mara moja tu katika mahakama ya kwanza.

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Massachusetts mara nyingi huonekana kama moja ya majimbo ya kinga zaidi kwa ajili ya haki za hatari mbili. Azimio la Massachusetts la Haki hutoa ulinzi huru na mpana zaidi kuliko Marekebisho ya Tano. mahakama za Massachusetts hutumia “mtendaji sawa wa jinai”[FLT: 1] kiwango, ambacho huzuia kesi sio tu kwa kosa la kisheria sawa lakini pia kwa malipo mengine yoyote yanayotokana na tabia hiyo ya jinai, hata kama vipengele tofauti. Hii inamaanisha kwamba kama mshtakiwa anaachiliwa kwa kuchukua kesi, hali haiwezi kuwashtaki kwa kupokea mali ya kiraia, ikiwa ni sawa na Massachusetts.

Nchi zilizo na ulinzi mdogo

Katika mwisho mwingine wa wigo, baadhi ya majimbo, kama vile Alabama na Mississippi, hutoa ulinzi ambao unaangalia sheria ya shirikisho kwa karibu bila upanuzi mkubwa. Majimbo haya kwa ujumla huruhusu kurudiwa baada ya kesi kwa "muhimu" yoyote na kuruhusu adhabu za nyongeza kwa makosa tofauti ya kisheria yaliyofanywa katika tendo moja. Katika mamlaka hizi, kanuni za uhuru wa kila siku[FLT:][FLT:] ni kikamilifu kutumika, na mahakama za serikali hazijakusanya ulinzi wa ziada kwa ajili ya mashtaka ya mfululizo na mamlaka mbalimbali.

Visiwa vya Puerto Rico, Guam, na Visiwa vya Virgin vya Marekani

Maeneo ya Marekani hufanya kazi chini ya vitendo vyao vya kikaboni na mifumo ya kisheria, na kusababisha matumizi ya hatari ya hatari ya mara mbili. Wakati Marekebisho ya Tano inatumika kwa maeneo kupitia kuingizwa, mahakama za eneo zimeunda tafsiri za kipekee.

Puerto Rico ya Puerto Rico

Katiba ya Puerto Rico inakataza waziwazi hatari mbili, lakini Kanuni ya Kiraia ya eneo hilo inaruhusu kesi katika hali maalum ambayo hairuhusu kwa kawaida katika majimbo. Kwa mfano, Puerto Rico inaruhusu serikali kukata rufaa hukumu ya kutokutenda haki ikiwa mahakama ya chini ilifanya kosa la sheria, na ikiwa imefanikiwa, mshtakiwa anaweza kurudishwa tena. Hii ni kuondoka kwa kiasi kikubwa kutoka kwa sheria ya shirikisho, ambapo hukumu ya kutokuwa na hatia ni ya mwisho kabisa. Zaidi ya hayo, Puerto Rico hutumia jaribio la "mchanganyiko" kwa uangalifu, lakini kwa pango ambalo linaweza kufuta mashtaka ya kisheria bila kukiuka sheria.

Guam ya Guam

Guam ya double jeopardy sheria ni codified katika Kanuni yake Annotated, kwa karibu kufuatilia mfano shirikisho lakini kwa tofauti mashuhuri. Guam inatumia iliyopita "mambo sawa" mtihani. Hata hivyo, Guam mahakama kuwa serikali ya taifa ni si amefungwa na acquittals katika mahakama ya shirikisho kwa kitendo hicho, kama maeneo ni kuchukuliwa huru ndani ya mfumo wa shirikisho. Hii ina maana mtu aliyeachiliwa katika Guam Mahakama Kuu inaweza kinadharia kuwa kushtakiwa na mahakama kwa ajili ya shirikisho kwa tukio hilo kama sheria zote na faini ya ndani na kulazimisha sheria ya shirikisho.

Visiwa vya Virgin vya Marekani

Visiwa vya Virgin vya Marekani (USVI) vina mfumo wa mseto unaokopa kutoka kwa serikali na sheria ya shirikisho. Sheria ya Kufufua Organic ya Visiwa vya Virgin ina vifungu viwili vya hatari, lakini wilaya pia hufuata mifano ya shirikisho kwa uhuru. Kipengele kimoja cha kipekee: Sheria ya USVI inaruhusu kesi tena ikiwa acquittal ilinunuliwa na udanganyifu au rushwa, ubaguzi mdogo lakini halisi haukutambuliwa katika majimbo mengi ya jinai. Hii inafanana na dhana ya "hatari isiyohusishwa" katika kesi ambapo uadilifu wa mahakama nyingi za Marekani uliathiriwa kimsingi na kesi hiyo.

Mambo muhimu ambayo huzidisha tofauti

Tofauti katika sheria mbili hatari katika mamlaka ya Marekani inatokana na vyanzo kadhaa:

  • [TD="width: 456"] [FONT=&](2)[/FONT][FONT=&]Bila kuathiri masharti ya kifungu kidogo (1) cha kifungu hiki, Tume itakuwa na mamlaka ya kuajiri mtaalamu yeyote kwa ajili ya shughuli maalumu au kwa muda mfupi.[/FONT] [FONT=&](3)[/FONT][FONT=&]Tume itawalipa mishahara na posho wafanyakazi wake kadri itakavyoamua mara kwa mara. [/FONT][/TD]
  • [TD="width: 456"] [FONT=&](2)[/FONT][FONT=&]Bila kuathiri masharti ya kifungu kidogo (1) cha kifungu hiki, Tume itakuwa na mamlaka ya kuajiri mtaalamu yeyote kwa ajili ya shughuli maalumu au kwa muda mfupi.[/FONT] [FONT=&](3)[/FONT][FONT=&]Tume itawalipa mishahara na posho wafanyakazi wake kadri itakavyoamua mara kwa mara. [/FONT][/TD]
  • [TD="width: 456"] [FONT=&](2)[/FONT][FONT=&]Bila kuathiri masharti ya kifungu kidogo (1) cha kifungu hiki, Tume itakuwa na mamlaka ya kuajiri mtaalamu yeyote kwa ajili ya shughuli maalumu au kwa muda mfupi.[/FONT] [FONT=&](3)[/FONT][FONT=&]Tume itawalipa mishahara na posho wafanyakazi wake kadri itakavyoamua mara kwa mara. [/FONT][/TD]
  • Baadhi ya majimbo yanaruhusu serikali kukata rufaa baadhi ya madai kabla ya hukumu ya mwisho, uwezekano wa kuruhusu kesi, wakati wengine wanapunguza rufaa hizo.
  • [TD="width: 456"] [FONT=&](2)[/FONT][FONT=&]Bila kuathiri masharti ya kifungu kidogo (1) cha kifungu hiki, Tume itakuwa na mamlaka ya kuajiri mtaalamu yeyote kwa ajili ya shughuli maalumu au kwa muda mfupi.[/FONT] [FONT=&](3)[/FONT][FONT=&]Tume itawalipa mishahara na posho wafanyakazi wake kadri itakavyoamua mara kwa mara. [/FONT][/TD]

Wajibu wa kesi na maombi

Katika mahakama ya shirikisho na majimbo mengi, ikiwa kesi ya jinai inatangazwa kwa sababu ya jury iliyopachikwa, mashtaka yanaweza kumjaribu mshtakiwa. Hata hivyo, ikiwa kesi hiyo ilisababishwa na utovu wa nidhamu wa nidhamu ambao ulikusudiwa kuchochea hatari ya pande mbili, hatari mbili inaweza kuzuia kesi. majimbo yanatofautiana juu ya kile kinachofanya "uchochezi wa makusudi." Baadhi ya majimbo (kwa mfano, Massachusetts) hudhani uovu ikiwa hatua za mwendesha mashtaka zilikuwa za uzembe au kwa ujumla, wakati wengine zinahitaji kutoa amri maalum, Texas.

Athari kwa watetezi na watendaji

Kwa washitakiwa, kazi ya kiraka ya sheria hatari mbili inaweza kuwa na matokeo ya kubadilisha maisha. mwendo wa kufukuzwa kwamba mafanikio katika hali moja inaweza kushindwa katika nyingine. mawakili wa ulinzi lazima ushauri wateja si tu kwa mashtaka katika mkono lakini pia katika hatari ya mashtaka mfululizo na huru mbalimbali au kwa makosa ya kisheria yanayotokana na mwenendo huo huo. Katika uchunguzi wa hali mbili au vikosi vya shirikisho-hali, washitakiwa wanaweza kukabiliana na majaribio tofauti katika mamlaka kabla ya ukweli huo ni kikamilifu litue.

Kwa watendaji wa kisheria, kukaa kimya kwa sheria za hatari za ndani mbili ni muhimu wakati wa kufungua hoja, maombi ya mazungumzo, au kuamua ikiwa kukubaliana na kesi. Kwa mfano, kupata kufukuzwa kwa msingi wa ushahidi wa kutosha katika mamlaka ambayo inaruhusu rufaa ya kufukuzwa hiyo inaweza kusababisha kesi tena, wakati katika hali kali kufukuzwa kunaweza kuwa mwisho. Vivyo hivyo, kuchagua kati ya kesi ya benchi na kesi ya jury inaweza kuathiri wakati wa hatari-katika baadhi ya majimbo inajiunga na kesi wakati wa kwanza ni ushahidi katika kesi, lakini kupokea kifungo cha mahakama.

Hitimisho: Mandhari ya Kisheria ya Dynamic

[TD="width: 456"] [FONT=&](2)[/FONT][FONT=&]Bila kuathiri masharti ya kifungu kidogo (1) cha kifungu hiki, Tume itakuwa na mamlaka ya kuajiri mtaalamu yeyote kwa ajili ya shughuli maalumu au kwa muda mfupi.[/FONT] [FONT=&](3)[/FONT][FONT=&]Tume itawalipa mishahara na posho wafanyakazi wake kadri itakavyoamua mara kwa mara. [/FONT][/TD]