Ukwazisa: Ilifa Elihlala Lihleli Le - 14 LoMthetho Ohlaziyiweyo

UHlaziyo lweshumi elinesine loMgaqo-siseko waseUnited States lumi njengenye yezona ntlobo ziguquliweyo nezicatshuliweyo kumthetho waseMerika. Isigqibo saqinisekiswa ngoJulayi 9, 1868, ebudeni bexesha lokuvuselelwa kwezakhiwo, esi sigqibo sayilwa ngokusisiseko ukuseka amalungelo abantu ababekade bengamakhoboka kunye nokubhukuqa amalungelo angaqhelekanga Dered Scott v. Sandford[FLT] [[FLD] [1] isigqibo, esivakalise ukuba ama-Afrika aya kuba ngabemi. Ngaphandle kwenjongo yayo yantlandlolo, uLawulo lwezinzi, uGawula lwesine lwenziwa lisixhobo esinamandla sokuhambela phambili, inkqubo ekufuneka, kunye namalungelo obumi kulo lonke ilizwe laseMelika. Imithetho yayo i-Genekalths ``ieastly Proces, i-Clastmastment, i-stion, i-Aultmentalctivement, i-rencementmentalment, i-rectivementmental, nation, nault, nalist

Imeko Yembali: Ukwakhiwa Kwawo Nemfuneko Yesiqinisekiso SomGaqo-siseko

Uhlaziyo lweshumi elinesine lwavela ngqo kwintlekele yemfazwe yamakhaya kunye nexesha elininzi lokuvuselelwa kwakhona. Emva koloyiso lwe-Union, amazwana avunywa kwi-Union phantsi kweemeko ezazifuna ukuba amkele umgaqo-siseko omtsha oyamkela ukuphela kobukhoboka. Noko ke, iindlu zowiso-mthetho zasezantsi zakhawuleza zamisela “Imithetho Emnyama” eyenzelwe ukuphelisa inkululeko yama-Afrika kunye nokuwanyanzela ukuba abe kwimeko efana nobukhoboka.

Ukoyisa Ukuchasa Kobuongameli

UMongameli uAndrew Johnson, ikomiti e-Democrat yaseTennessee, wachasa ngamandla ukunyanzeliswa kwamalungelo abantu yaza yawuphelisa ngamandla uMthetho wamaLungelo ka-1966. IKhomishini yalawula i-veto, kodwa imozulu yezobupolitika yahlala iguquka. UMthetho woLawulo lweMpatho-Mdambi we-144th wabhaliswa yikomiti eQhulumente eHla i-Convention·a uRoperation, eyanyanzelwa ukuba ikwazi ukukhusela amalungelo abantu ngaphezu kokufikelela kunyakathothotho lwezikohlolo lwezopolitiko kunye neengxaki zowiso-mthetho. Isivumelwano sokuqulungela i-Amperences kwafuneka siqiniselwe ngurhulumente owe-3-4, kuquka namazwe ayesakuba ne-Conferateance, eyanyanzelwa ukuba ibe yimeko yokukhuselwa komthetho wezo lwesizwe kuMbuso we-U. Le nkqubo yagqitywa ngo-1868, ukuphawula olungundoqo phakathi kolawulo lwe-rhulumente nolawulo.

Imvukelo Yokuzalwa Kommi

Phambi koMphetho-Mphetho weshumi elinesine wesiHlazo, ubumi babuchazwa kakhulu ngumthetho wesizwe. Isigwebo sokuqala sokulungisa i-Monitial Claus(umthetho we-"FLT]] red Scott ngokuchaza ukuba “bonke abantu abazelwe okanye abadaliweyo eUnited States, kwaye abaphantsi kolawulo lwayo, ngabemi baseUnited States kunye noRhulumente apho bahlala khona.” Lo mgaqo ubumi obufanelekileyo ubulityele ubugosa-mthetho wobuzwe baseMelika ukususela ngoko. Yanikwa ngoko nangoko ubumi kufutshane nesiqingatha sesigidi esitsha esikhululweyo sama-Amerika kunye nesiseko sokhuseleko olulandeleyo.

Amalungiselelo Ayintloko OMthetho We - 14 Wokwenziwa Komthetho

ISihlaziyi seshumi elinesine siqulethe amacandelo amahlanu, kodwa eyona miqathango ilandelayo ifunyanwa kwicandelo 1. Eli candelo laphulwe langamacandelo amathathu angundoqo, ngalinye elinemisebenzi eyahlukileyo nembali eninzi yokucaciswa kwetyala.

Ummi UClaus

Njengoko kuphawuliwe, iCitizenshic Claus inikela ukuba wonke umntu ozalelwe eUnited States (onokukhetha okunciphileyo abantwana boonozakuzaku bemi bamanye amazwe kunye nabo bazalwa kwimikhosi eyingozi) ngummi wase-U. Eli binzana likwaqinisekisa ukuba abemi bendalo banemeko esemthethweni efanayo nabemi bomthonyama. Yayisembindini wenkundla ePhakamileyo e United States v. Vaello-Madero, exhasa amandla eBhunga iBhunga lombuso ukulungiselela i-U.S. Ngoxa babebanyanzelela kwi-R Rico abemi.

Inkqubela KaClaus

IThe Baw Process Clause ithi akukho mbuso uya “kukhupha namnye umntu wobomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo yomthetho.” Eli binzana litolikwa ukuba libe nemilinganiselo emibini eyahlukileyo: inkqubo efunekayo (iinkqubo yorhulumente xa ethatha inyathelo ngokuchasene nomntu ngamnye) kunye nenkqubo efunekayo (ukukhuselwa kwamalungelo athile asisiseko kungenelelo lukarhulumente, kwanokuba iinkqubo zilandelwa yinkqubo efunekayo). Isiseko esifanelekileyo sokuzimela i-imfihlo, ilungelo lokutshata, ilungelo lokuvala inzala yokuthintela ukukhawula ukukhawula (de [[FLD:] .KKlekssonson' iqum'ish , i-Amention yezonyango [Foct:1] i-oct1] isetyenziswe kwakhona kwimithetho emininzi echasene nemithetho enxamnye nemfundiso yomthetho yokuthintela ukuqhotyiswa.

Ukukhusela UClaus Ngokulinganayo

I-Unimeal Protection Claus iyalela ukuba akukho mbuso oya “kukuqinisekisa nabani na ngaphakathi kwegunya lakhe ukukhusela okulinganayo kwemithetho.” Oku kusisixhobo esinamandla sokulwa nocalucalulo. Kufuna ukuba abantu ngokufanayo abakwindawo efanayo baphathwe ngokufanayo. Iinkundla zisebenzisa amanqanaba ahlukeneyo okuxhomekeke kulwahlulo oluxhomekeke kukhetho: uhlolo olungqongqo lohlanga, lwemvelaphi yesizwe, kunye nophambukeli; ukuvavanywa okuphakathi kwelungu kunye ne-gulonke; kunye nokuncitshiswa ngokuqiqa-qikelelwa kwezinye iindidi ezininzi. Ukhuseleko olulinganayo lwaba sisiseko esisemthethweni se [[FLT:] [FFLT:].[5] v5].[5], kunye nezinye izigqibo zoluntu.[5]

Uphawu lwetyala leNkundla Ephakamileyo Olutolika IsiHlamlo Seshumi Eline

Amandla okwenyaniso oMthetho WeziHlaliso we - 14 aye avuleka kwiinkundla. Ngasezantsi ngamanye amatyala anempembelelo eNkundla Ephakamileyo aye aguqula intsingiselo yawo.

Ityala leNdlu yokuDlala (1873)

Kwinkcazelo yokuqala engundoqo yoMphetho-Mgaqo weshumi elinesine, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yachaza ngokufutshane amalungelo okanye i-Immunities Claus (enye inxalenye yeCandelo 1) yaza yathi ikhusela kuphela iqela elisikelweyo lamalungelo karhulumente, hayi uludwe olubanzi lwamalungelo karhulumente aphengululiweyo. Esi sigqibo sawanciphisa kakhulu amathuba egama lamazwi saza sasusa ubunzima obuninzi bokulungisa ubunzima kwiNkqubo elindelekileyo kunye noKhuselo olulinganayo luka-Clauss. Ngaphezu kwenkulungwane, amalungelo okanye ii-Immunity Class azipheli.

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)

Kwisigqibo esinezothe esiya kuphazamisa ukuchotshelwa kwemithetho yetyala eMelika phantse iminyaka engamashumi amathandathu, iNkundla Ephakamileyo yaxhasa ucalucalulo lobuhlanga phantsi “kokwahlukene kodwa kulingana”. INkundla yathi i-Olincial Protection Claus ayizange yaphulwe yimithetho karhulumente efuna ikhethe lobuhlanga kwizakhiwo zikawonke wonke, logama nje amaziko elingana. Esi sigqibo sanika uGaqo-siseko uGaqo-siseko ku-Jim Crow ngaphaya koMzantsi.

Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo (1954)

IJaji enkulu u-Ftting Earl Warren wanika imbono engqinelanayo yokuba “ngokwahlukeneyo kodwa kuyalingana” ayinandawo kwimfundo kawonke-wonke. INkundla yafumanisa ukuba ucalucalulo lohlanga kwizikolo zikawonke-wonke luye lwabangela umonakalo ohlala uhleli engqondweni kubantwana base-Afrika kwaye lwaphula umthetho woKhuselo olulinganayo luka-Claus. Brown[[ ayizange iphendule nje kuphela [ PHYY[] kodwa yakwahlula kwakhona idityaniswa neqela lamalungelo amakhaya angokuqhelekileyo kwaye yamisela umzekelo wokukhusela amalungelo angundoqo.

Virginia (1967) enothando

Inkundla yawisa imithetho karhulumente ekwalela umtshato weentlanga ezahlukeneyo, isithi imithetho enjalo yaphula i-Active Programme ne-Felt Clauses. IJaji enkulu u-Earl Warren yabhala ukuba “inkululeko yokutshata, okanye ukungatshati, umntu wolunye uhlanga uhlala nomntu ngamnye kwaye akanako ukuphazanyiswa nguRhulumente.” Eli tyala landisa imigaqo ye- Brown kulwalamano lobuqu olusondelele kwaye limisela indlela yesigqibo sokwanelisa umtshato kamva.

Roe v. Wade (1973)

Kwisigqibo esiphikiswayo, iNkundla yalamkela ilungelo lebhinqa lokukhetha ukuqhomfa njengenxalenye yelungelo lokuzimela ngecala elikhuselwe yi-Act Procession Claus. Rooe yaseka isiseko esisisilungelelanisi esalungelelanisa izilangazelelo zikarhulumente kwimpilo kamama kunye nobomi bomntwana kunye nenkululeko yomfazi. Nangona ] Roo [i-'i-FLT] yayilawula [[FLT:]] i-Dobss v. Jackson’s Health Organization [FLT:]2] [20], ihlala ingumzekelo obalulekileyo wenkqubo esezantsi.

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)

Kwisigqibo esipheleleyo, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yathi izibini ezingokwabelana ngesondo zinelungelo elisisiseko lokutshata phantsi kwe-Act Programme and Amement Clauss. IJaji uAnthony Kennedy uluvo loninzi lwagxininisa isidima kunye nenkululeko yokuzimela izibini ezifanayo, inxulumanisa umtshato kwiinjongo ezingundoqo zohlanga zenkululeko nokulingana. bergefell ingumqondiso okhoyo kulwando oluqhubekayo lweLBTQ+ amalungelo asekuhlaleni.

Impembelelo Yamalungelo Abemi

IsiHlanzi seMimiselo yeshumi elinesine iye yaba sisixhobo esiphambili esisemthethweni ekulweni ukulingana kweminye imikrolo echazayo.

IQumrhu lamaLungelo laBami leMidlalo yoMsebenzi woMzantsi Afrika

Iinkokeli ezifana noMartin Luther King Jr. kunye nemibutho enjengeNaACP Legal Defense Fund yasebenzisa iSinyuselo seshumi elinesine ukucel ’ umngeni ukungabikho kohlanga, imiqathango yokuvota, kunye nocalulo kwiindawo zikawonke-wonke. Isivumelwano sanika isiseko esisemthethweni somthetho ophawulayo njengoMthetho wamaLungelo ka-1964 kunye noMthetho we-Voting Rights ka-1965. Impumelelo yombutho ekubhexeliseni i-Comement Protection Clauslee wabonisa amandla okupheliswa kwendlela yokuguqula intlalo-ntle ngomgaqo-siseko.

Amalungelo Amabhinqa Nokulingana Kwabantu Abangengobawo

Ngoxa uHlaziyo lweshumi elinesine lweSichibiyelo lungazange ludlulele kumabhinqa ekuqaleni, amashumi amabini aneshumi elinesibini namashumi anesithoba alwamkela imbono yokuba ucalucalulo olusekelwe kwilungu lomntu luchasene noKhuselo olulinganayo lukaClaus. Reed v. Reed1], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yabanjwa okokuqala ukuba umthetho ophatha amadoda namabhinqa ngokwahlukileyo kufuneka ube nesiseko esifanelekileyo. Kamva, Craig v. Boren[FLT][3] [77], iNkundla yamkela umgangatho ophakathi wocalu lwabiwo lobufana. Ezi meko zavula ucalucalulo lwezicalucalulo lomsebenzi, ukrwe lwemfundo, ukuphathwa ngokungenayokwasemthethweni phantsi komthetho.

LGBTQ+ Amalungelo nomgangatho womtshato

Ukusuka -Romer v. Evans (1996] ukuya ku-[FLT] Lawrence v. Texas [2003]] [2003]] ukuya [ku-] e-Obergefell[, abaxhasi baye basoloko bebhenela umphetho we-Genethiwe-Genethi ukukhusela ukukhusela imbonakalo ye-sondo kunye nobufana. Isiqinisekiso se-mendmentation sesiqinisekiso sokukhusela okulinganayo besiyiyo ekuchaseni imithetho yolwaphulo-mthetho, ngokuya iNkuqaphela ukuba imithetho ejoliswe kwiLBTQ+ abantu bangafuni ukuhlaluka okanye ukuncitshiswa ngokucothayo. Namhlanje, i-Genethdydydydmic ihlala ingunxa-active wid with with widfotion, ukhuseleko, kunye nokufikelela kwimpilo.

Iingxaki Neengxubusho Kulwazi Lwanamhlanje

Phezu kwako nje ukwamkelwa kwayo ngokubanzi njengempembelelo yokusesikweni, uMphetho-mthetho weshumi elinesine awunazo iimpikiswano. Ukungavisisani ngentsingiselo yawo yantlandlolo, umlinganiselo wamabinzana ayo, nendima efanelekileyo yeenkundla zikarhulumente iyaqhubeka ibangela impikiswano eshushu.

Isenzo Esiqinisekisayo

Ukhuselo olulinganayo lukaClaus luye lwangundoqo kwingxoxo yokuthetha ngoyedwa kwisenzo semfundo nomsebenzi. Iinguqu zeYunivesithi yaseCalifornia v. Bakke [[FLT] [1988], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yathi i-Centulo Ephakamileyo yayingenaziqu zohlanga kodwa iNkuhlela inokuthi uhlanga lungathathwa njengelungu elinye elisemngeni. Ngokulandelayo njengemeko ze- v. Bollinger [2003] [2003] [iiiiiiiiiiiintloko] ixhasa ukuvukelwa kwemizwa kwemizwano yemidlalo, kodwa iNkundla ikhula ngokuthanda ukuthandabuza ukuvukelwa kwemiqatha yemiqathango yoluvo. [FLD]

Ukuzalwa Kwabemi Nokufuduka

Isiqinisekiso sobumi sika-Clausle sokufumana ubumi sicelwe umngeni ngabo bathi abantwana bomfuduko ongabhalwanga “abalawulwa kwigunya” lase-United States. Izicelo ezininzi kunye nemiyalelo yesebe eliphetheyo ziye zazama ukunqanda le nkcazelo, kodwa imbono esemthethweni ekhoyo yenkundla ukususela United States v. Wong Kim Ark (1898).

Ukuba Ngumntu Onenkxalabo kunye noHlaziyo lweshumi elinesine

Kungcelele lwezigqibo eziphikiswayo, iNkundla ePhakamileyo inike amacandelo ukhuseleko lweSigqibo seshumi elinesine soLawulo oluHlazekileyo. Ukuqala [nge- Santa Clara County v. kumzantsi Pacific Railroad Co. (1886), iNkundla yavuma ukuba amaqumrhu anelungelo “lokwenza inkqubela phambili” nekhuselwa ngokulinganayo. Le nkcazelo isetyenziselwa ukukhusela amalungelo embutho eququzelekayo kwaye, Catizens United [FEC 0], ukuwisa imidaba phantsi kwemiqathango yezo yezopolitiki ezimeleyo yemibutho. Abagxeki bephikisa ukuba olu nyuso lwenjongo yolawulo lwantlalo.

Ikamva Lenkqubo Engagqibekanga

Ukubhukuqwa kwe . ku-'FLT] ama-Dobts [ uphakamise imibuzo emalunga nobuvuvuvu benkqubo efunekayo. Uluvo loninzi ku [[FLT:] [[FLT]]] [ lwagxininisa ukuba ilungelo lokuqhomfa alisekelwanga kakhulu kwimbali okanye kwisithethe, lifaka amathandabuzo kumalungelo angamiselwangasetyenziswanga, ulwalamano olusondeleneyo, kwanolwalamano olusondeleyo, kwanomtshato. Abaxhasi bezomthetho nabaxhasi baphikisanayo ngoku nokuba iNkulungisa iNkuhlela imizekelo esezantsi iya kuphinda ixele okanye imigaqo engundoqo. I-Gene79 yexesha elizayo ayiqinisekwangaqinisekiswanga kulawulo lobuqu.

Isiphelo: IsiHlomelo Esiphilayo Sesizwe Esitshintshayo

UHlaziyo lweshumi elinesine asilodabi elizinzileyo lesikhumba; lilungiselelo elinamandla eliye lahambelana nokuqondwa okuguquguqukayo kokulingana nenkululeko eUnited States. Kusukela ekusebenzeni kwalo ngemfazwe yamakhaya kukwixesha lamanani, ukupheliswa kuye kwaba yimfazwe yelixa lokulwa iimfuno eziphezulu zesizwe. Iingxelo zalo ziyaqhubeka zinxulunyaniswa kwiimeko ezibandakanya amalungelo okuvota, inkohlakalo yamapolisa, isigwebo sezoqoqosho, kunye nemfundo epheleleyo. Njengabafundisi-mfundo kunye nabafundi, ukusetyenziswa kweNguquko ye 1448 kuthetha ukuxanduva ngemibuzo esisiseko ngomntu, oko kuxhomekeke kwiimfuno eziphezulu zesizwe, nendlela umthetho onokuba sisixhobo sokukhulula nokuphelisa intlalo. Ukuqonda oku akuyo kuphela ukusetyenziswa kolwazi oluqhelekileyo kodwa kuxandumiso lwezinzonzonzo olusebenzayo ngenxa yokulwa nolwanolo lwemithetho-mthetho.

Ukuqhubeka ufunda, jonga [[FLT: 0] iphepha logcino-lwazi lohlanga kwi 14th Amendment , iCornell Information yolwazi olusemthethweni yeZiko lokwahlula-hlula , kunye [[FLT:]ingqokelela yamatyala eNkundla ePhakamileyo ukutolika intelelo.