Table of Contents
INkundla ePhakamileyo yeUnited States imi njengeyona iphakamileyo kwinkqubo yokugweba yaseMerika, isebenzisa amandla angaqhelekanga ukutolika umGaqo-siseko nokulungisa indlela esemthethweni yesizwe. Njengoko ummeli wokugqibela womthetho wesizwe, izigqibo zeNkundla zikhutshwa kuwo onke amanqanaba karhulumente, zichaphazela ubomi bezigidi zamaMelika. Ukuqonda indlela iNkundla ePhakamileyo esebenza ngayo .
Indima yeNkundla ePhakamileyo yandisa ngaphaya kokucombulula nje iingxubusho phakathi kwamaqela. Isigqibo ngasinye simisela imizekelo esemthethweni emele ilandelwe ziinkundla ezincinci, sidala iqumrhu lokutolika komgaqo-siseko okhokela umthetho waseMerika kwizizukulwana. Amandla eNkundla yokuhlola ityala, amiselwa kwityala eliphawulayo uMarbury v. Madison ngo-1803, ivumela ukuba ibethe imithetho edluliswe yiBhunga okanye izenzo ezithathiwe lisebe eliphetheyo ukuba lichasa umGaqo-siseko. Oku kwenza iNkuntlulo Ephakamileyo ibe nguvavanyo olubalulekileyo kwamanye amasebe karhulumente nomkhosi wamalungelo omGaqo-siseko.
Ityala Negunya LeNkundla Ephakamileyo
UMgaqo-siseko umisela ukuba iNkundla ePhakamileyo inemithetho yokuqala nelawulayo. Ulawulo lwantlandlolo luthetha ukuba iNkundla ePhakamileyo yeyokuqala, kwaye kuphela, iNkundla yokuphulaphula ityala. UmGaqo-siseko umisela amatyala olawulo lokuqala kwiimbambano phakathi kwamaphondo okanye iimpikiswano phakathi koopolisa okanye abanye abaveleli abaphezulu. La matyala okulawula anqabile ngokothelekisa, aquka kuphela inxalenye encinane yezibuko leNkundla.
Ulawulo lwetyala luthetha ukuba iNkundla inegunya lokuhlola izigqibo zeenkundla ezisezantsi. Inkoliso yamatyala athethwa yiNkundla Ephakamileyo asisibheno kwiinkundla ezincinci. Lo msebenzi wokukhupha isigwebo ngulapho iNkundla ePhakamileyo isebenzisa khona impembelelo yayo ebalulekileyo kumthetho waseMerika. INkundla ihlola izigqibo ezivela kwiinkundla zesibheno, iinkundla zesithili-sethili kwiimeko ezithile, kunye neenkundla eziphakamileyo zikarhulumente xa loo matyala ebandakanya imibuzo yomgaqo-siseko okanye umthetho karhulumente.
Ngokuqhelekileyo, iNkundla ithetha ngamatyala agqitywe kwiNkundla yezibheno efanelekileyo yase-U.S. okanye kwiNkundla ephakamileyo yezobheno kwilizwe elinikiweyo (ukuba inkundla yezomGaqo-siseko igqiba ngesigqibo). Oku kuqinisekisa ukuba imibuzo engokwasemthethweni iye yavavanywa ngokucokisekileyo ziinkundla eziphantsi ngaphambi kokufikelela kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo, kwaye kuvumela ukuba izigwebi zingenelwe kwiingcinga nakuhlalutyiswa kweejaji ezisele ziqwalasele le mbambano.
Inkqubo yeCertiori: Indlela yokungena kwiNkundla Ephakamileyo
Uninzi lwamatyala afikelela kwiNkundla Ephakamileyo kwinkqubo ebizwa ngokuba sisicelo se-critiorari, esibizwa ngokuba yi-"cert". Eli gama lesiLatin, elithetha "ukuxelelwa," limela isicelo sokuba iNkundla ePhakamileyo ihlole isigqibo senkundla esezantsi. Ukuqonda inkqubo yeCertiari kubaluleke kakhulu ekuqondeni indlela iNkundla ePhakamileyo elawula ngayo izibuko layo ize ikhethe amatyala afanele aqwalaselwe yiyo.
Ubukhulu Bezibongozo
Ligama ngalinye, malunga nama-7 000 ukuya kuma-8 000 izibongozo ezitsha zikhutshelwa kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. Noko ke, iNkundla yamkela i-100-150 yamatyala angaphezu kwama-7 000 ecelwa ukuba iphinde iphinde ihlolwe nyaka ngamnye. Oku kumela isantya esamkelweyo sabangaphantsi kwe-2% yezibongozo ezigcinwe. Izinga lokunika intsebenzo elijikelezayo lijikeleza isi-1% kuzo zonke izibongozo nesi-3-5% yezicelo ezihlawulwayo.
Umahluko phakathi kwezicelo ezihlawulwayo kunye nezicelo ze-foma paupelis (IFP) ubalulekile. Ngaphezu kwesiqingatha sezicelo ezingenisiweyo zivela kwi-pro se ne/okanye kwimiqathango yolwaphulo-mthetho okanye izicelo zoluntu. Ekubeni ezi zibongozo zibhaliswe ngoomatiloshe abangengobasebenzi, zinandipha isantya esiphantsi kakhulu. Ukujolisa ingqalelo kuphela kwizicelo ezivuselelweyo zamagqwetha, isantya sempumelelo sisondele ku 6%, umyinge wokunika umlinganiselo wethemba.
Indlela Yokwanela I-Certiorari
INkundla Ephakamileyo ayiyinikeli nje isibeleko iCertiorari ngenxa yokuba iqela likholelwa ukuba inkundla engaphantsi yenziwa impazamo. Endaweni yoko, iNkundla ikhangela amatyala abonisa imibuzo ebalulekileyo engomthetho enee-funo ezibanzi. Nangona kungekho mithetho inyanzelisa iNkundla ukuba inikeze isibeleko kwiimeko ezithile, ngokuvisisana noMthetho weNkundla ePhakamileyo 10 (ekungekho nto ingaphaya komthetho wesandla), izigwebo phakathi kwezigqibo eziphakathi kweenkundla ezimbini zesiphatho zidla ngokusesikweni zisizathu esiyintloko sokuba abagwebi bathathe amatyala, nangona kukho amatyala amaninzi abawathatha ngaphandle kokwahlulwa kwesiphaluka.
Ukwahlulwa kwesiphaluka kwenzeka xa iinkundla ezahlukeneyo ze-appelte zikarhulumente zichaza umthetho omnye okanye ilungiselelo elingomGaqo-siseko ngendlela eziphikisanayo. Oku kwahlukahlukana kubangela ukungaqiniseki kumthetho kwaye kusenokuphumela kwimithetho eyahlukeneyo esemthethweni esetyenziswa kwiindawo ezahlukeneyo zelizwe. INkundla ePhakamileyo idla ngokungena kungenelelo ukucombulula ezi ngxabano nokumisela intsingiselo efanayo yomthetho wesizwe.
Ngapha koko kwahlulwa isiphaluka, iNkundla inganika ityala leCertiorari xa liveza ityala lenoveli okanye elibalulekileyo elingokomgaqo-siseko, xa isigqibo senkundla engaphantsi singqubana nemizekelo yeNkundla Ephakamileyo, okanye xa ityala libandakanya imbambano yokubaluleka kwesizwe efuna ingqalelo yeNkundla. IiJaji zisebenzisa ubulumko obuphangaleleyo ukugqiba ukuba ngawaphi amatyala aza kuwaphulaphula, kwaye akuyomfuneko ukuba zichaze isizathu sokuba zivumele okanye zikhanyele iCestiari okanye zikhanyele na na.
Ulawulo Lwezine
Ukunikezela ngecretiorari kufuna ukuba kuvunywe amavoti amane. Oku "Kuvotelwa kwabane" kuthetha ukuba nokuba inkoliso yeNkundla ayinamdla wokuchophela ityala, imbinana yabagwebi abane ingalizisa phambi kweNkundla ukuze iqwalaselwe ngokupheleleyo. Lo mthetho unceda ukuqinisekisa ukuba amatyala abalulekileyo awatyeshelwa kwaye unika inkqubo yabagwebi abakholelwa ukuba ityala lifanele ukuphenduliswa ukuze kuqinisekiswe ukuchotshelwa kwangaphandle kwenkxaso enkulu.
Umthetho we-4 ubonisa ulungelelwano phakathi kwempumelelo nokucokiseka. Ithintela nawuphi na ubulungisa okanye iqela elincinane ekuthinteleni uhlolo lwemeko ezinokubaluleka, ngeli lixa ukugcina umqobo ohluza ubuninzi bezicelo ezingavumelaniyo neNkundla.
Uluhlu Nengqungquthela Yokuxubusha
Asiyozicelo zonke ezifumana ulwazelelelo olupheleleyo ngabo bonke abagwebi abasithoba. Endaweni yoko, iJaji eyintloko ithumela uluhlu "lokucelw'izicelo ezifanele ukuxutyushwa kwingqungquthela yamatyala. Uluhlu lokucombulula alukhange lubonwe, kodwa izicelo ezisondeleyo zinokubakho, ezithe zafunyanwa ngabaququzeleli beNkundla Ephakamileyo uJohn Elwood eScotusblog. Njengoko uElwood echaza, "[w] ityala liphinde labekwa, abagwebi abanikezeli okanye abaphindi, kodwa endaweni yoko baya kuphinda balihlolisise eli tyala kwingqungquthela yabo elandelayo."
Nge-2022, iMithetho emalunga ne-125. Ukubeka elo nani ngombono, inani lamatyala anikwe kwiTerm 2022 yayingu-60. Oku kuthetha ukuba liqhekeza elincinane lezicelo ezigcinwe kuludwe lokuxubusha, yaye kuphela phantse isiqingatha salawo akwizicwangciso ezixutyushwayo ekugqibeleni anikwa uhlolo.
Ngexesha lenkomfa yayo yeeveki zonke, `intlanganiso yabucala yamatyala] ihlola izibongozo zenkundla igqibe kwelokuba ingayinika okanye ingayiniki. Ezi nkomfa ziqhutywa ngokufihlakeleyo ngokupheleleyo, nezisithoba kuphela izigwebo ezikhoyo. Akukho babhali-mthetho, amalungu abasebenzi, okanye abanye abasebenzi abavumelekileyo egumbini, beqinisekisa ukuba abagwebi bangathetha ngokukhululekileyo nangenyani ngetyala eliqwalaselweyo.
Indima Yabameli Abasemagqabini Benkundla Ephakamileyo
Uphando lubonise ukuba oothunywashe abathile bandisa ngokuphawulekayo amathuba okuba isicelo sivunywe. Esinye sezona zinto zibalulekileyo kukuqinisekiswa namava egqwetha elisifake esi sicelo. Abagwebi bamava eNkundla ePhakamileyo abavela rhoqo phambi kweNkundla banempumelelo ephezulu kakhulu ekufumaneni isibeleko kunamagqwetha anqabileyo ukuqhelisela phambi kweNkundla.
Ukuququzelelwa kweNkundla Ephakamileyo kuvumela amagqwetha ukuba akhulise ulwazi olukhethekileyo lwezigwebo kunye nokhetho lwawo olukhethekileyo, kunye nolwalamano namagqwetha angenawo amanye amagqwetha. Ukutyhalela kwiNkundla kunika amagqwetha ukuqonda oko kumele kuqukwe kwaye kungaqukwa ezibongozweni zawo. Obu buchule buguqulela kwizibongozo ezisebenzayo ezilungiselelwe ngcono ukuthatha ingqalelo zabagwebi kunye nemibango ekhoyo ngokweendlela ezihambelana neenjongo eziphambili zeNkundla.
I-Ofisi yeSolicitor General, emela urhulumente wase-United States phambi kweNkundla Ephakamileyo, inandipha impumelelo ephezulu ngokukhethekileyo. I-ofisi yeNkulumbuso yeNkundla Ephakamileyo inobuchule obunzulu ekuqheliseni kunye namatyala aqwalaselweyo phambi kokubhala izibongozo, nto leyo enegalelo kwingxelo yayo ekhethekileyo yerekhodi.
Izibizo Zemboniselo Zesixhobo Solawulo Jikelele
Inkundla ngamanye amaxesha imema umSolicitor Jikelele ukuba afake iimbono ezifutshane ze-United States `esaziwa njenge "ibiza iimbono zikaSolitoritor General" okanye CVSG. Ezi zimemo zinqabile kodwa ziphawuleka kakhulu ukuba zinika iziphumo ezibalulekileyo. Xa iNkundla ibeka iCVSG, ibonisa umdla onzulu kwityala kwaye isoloko ichaza ukunikwa kwesandla sesibeleko, ingakumbi ukuba uSocillitener ucebisa uphando.
Inkqubo Eshwankathelisayo
Xa iNkundla ePhakamileyo inika iCertiorari, ityala lingena kwinqanaba elifutshane. Kulapho amaqela anikela khona iimpikiswano zawo zomthetho ngendlela ebhaliweyo, eveza imvelaphi eyinyaniso, imibandela engokwasemthethweni, kunye nokuqiqa okuxhasa iindawo zawo. Inkqubo efutshane ibalulekile kuba inikezela isiseko sokuqonda kwetyala kunye nenkqubo eza kuxutyushwa kwingxoxo edluliselwa ngomlomo nakwisigqibo sesiphelo seNkundla.
Imibala
Ngokwemithetho yeNkundla Ephakamileyo, umcebisi unexesha elithile lokubhala ityala elifutshane, kungekhona eligqitha kumaphepha angama-50, elibeka ityala lakhe elingokwasemthethweni malunga nembambano iNkundla eyavumela ukuba iphinde iphinde ihlole. Umcebisi omfutshane wesicelo makayicacise ngokucacileyo imibuzo engokwasemthethweni enikelweyo, anikezele inkcazelo echaza ityala kuquka iingongoma ezinxulumene nembali ebhaliweyo, ezikhoyo ngokuxhaswa yinkqubo nenkcazelo ebhaliweyo, kwaye achaze isizathu sokuba iNkundlalelo lwetyala lifanele lilawule ngokukholiswa ngulowo ucebisi.
Emva kokuba umcebisi ebekwe kafutshane, omnye umntu, owaziwa njengophendulayo, unikwa ixesha elithile lokuyila umphenduleli omfutshane. Oku kufutshane akukokugqitha kumaphepha angama-50. Impendulo emfutshane yomphendulayo kwiimpikiswano zomcebisi, ichaza ezinye iingcaciso zomthetho nezibakala, kwaye ichaza isizathu sokuba isigqibo senkundla esezantsi sifanele siqinisekiswe.
Emva kokuba izicelo zokuqala zibekwe, umfaki-sicelo kunye nomphendulane uvunyelwa ukuba afake iifayile zomgama omfutshane ophendulayo kwimeko yomnye umntu. Le mpendulo ifutshane ivumela icala ngalinye ukuba liphendule iimpikiswano ezintsha eziphakanyiswe liqela eliphikisanayo kwaye licokise iindawo zalo ngokulula elinye icala elifutshane.
I-Amicus Curiae Imifutshane
Ukongeza kwimiba ebhalwe ngamaqela ngokwawo, iNkundla ePhakamileyo isoloko ifumana iAnicus curiae − isiLatin se "umhlobo wenkundla""/isuka kubantu okanye kwimibutho engengawo amaqela kwityala kodwa inomdla kwiziphumo zalo. Ukuba ayibandakanyekanga ngqo kwityala, uRhulumente wase-U.S., omelwa nguSolicitor General, angafaka isifutshane ngenxa karhulumente. USolicitener General iifayile ezishwa rhoqo kwimicimbi apho urhulumente worhulumente worhulumente unesilangazelelo esinenzala ebalulekileyo, kwanaxa engeyo iqela elikwililungu le-litha.
Amafutshane anokuvela kwimithombo emininzi eyahlukeneyo, kuquka imibutho equka ukuqeshwa, amaqela oshishino, oorhulumente, abaphengululi borhulumente, abasemagunyeni, abasemagunyeni bakarhulumente, namanye amaqela anomdla. Le mifutshane isebenza imisebenzi emininzi ebalulekileyo. Inganika iNkundla iimbono ezongezelelekileyo kwimibandela engokwasemthethweni, inikela ulwamkelo oluthe ngqo okanye inkqubo esenokungachazwa ngokupheleleyo kwimiba yamaqela, iphaphele iNkusebenza kwesigqibo sawo, kwaye ibonise umkhamo womdla kawonke-wonke kwityala.
Inani leengxelo ezifutshane ze-amicu ezigcinwe kumatyala eNkundla Ephakamileyo liye lakhula ngokuphawulekayo kumashumi eminyaka akutshanje. Amatyala aphezulu anokutsala uninzi lwemiba emifutshane emele amakhulu eentlangano nabantu ngabanye. Ngoxa izigwebi zingabotshelelwanga ziimpikiswano ezikwimishwankathelana, uphando lubonisa ukuba ezi nkcazelo zifutshane zingaphembelela indlela iNkundla ecinga ngayo, ingakumbi xa inikela inkcazelo okanye iimbono ezingafumanekiyo kumaqela amaqela ashwankathile.
Ezinye iingxelo ezishwankathelweyo ze-amicu zinempembelelo kakhulu kunezinye. Iimfutshane ezibhalwe nguSolicitor General zithwala ubunzima obukhethekileyo, njengokuba kunjalo nangamagqwetha aseburhulumenteni, ingakumbi xa amaphondo edibene kunye. Iimfutshane ezivela kubaphengululi abangokwasemthethweni nabangaphambili abagwebi zinokuba nempembelelo xa zinika uhlalutyo oluntsonkothileyo lwemibuzo engokwasemthethweni.
Iimpikiswano Zemilomo Phambi KweNkundla Ephakamileyo
Impikiswano engoonobumba imela enye yezona nkalo zibonakalayo neziphawulekayo zoqheliselo lweNkundla Ephakamileyo. Lixesha kuphela apho abagwebi, amagqwetha, namaqela bedibana khona ukuze baxubushe ityala. Ngoxa ezi ngxelo zibhaliweyo zinika uhlalutyo olungokwasemthethweni oluneenkcukacha, intetho edluliselwa ngomlomo inika ithuba lokuphanda amandla nobuthathaka besikhundla samacala ngamanye ngokuvavanya ngokuthe ngqo.
Ukumiswa kunye nokuLungiselelwa
Inkundla ibamba impikiswano ethethwayo kumatyala amalunga nama-70-80 nyaka ngamnye. Iingxoxo zidla ngokucwangciswa ngoMvulo ochaziweyo, ngoLwesibini nangoLwesithathu ekuseni ziqala ngoMvulo wokuqala ngo-Oktobha, kwaye ziqhubeka ekupheleni koAprili. Ngokuqhelekileyo, iNkundla ibamba impikiswano ezimbini suku ngalunye ukususela nge 10:00 a.m.
Imo ephambili yeempikiswano zomlomo iguqukile kakhulu kunembali yeNkundla. Ngaphambi ko1849, iimpikiswano zomlomo phambi kweNkundla zazingathinteleki. Ngokufuthi, iimpikiswano zaqhubeka iintsuku kwaye zatsala isihlwele esikhulu. Noko ke, phakathi kobunzima betyala leNkundla obukhulayo benze ukuba kube nzima ukuphikisana okude. Ngo1970, ixesha lancitshiswa kuqheliselo lwangoku lwesiqingatha seyure kwicala ngalinye xa inkundla ihlaziya umthetho wengxoxo yomlomo ngo 398 U.S. 1058-59.
Namhlanje, icala ngalinye lifumana imizuzu engama-30 ukunikela ityala lalo nokuphendula imibuzo evela kubagwebi. Eli xesha limiselwe ngokungqongqo, nezibane kumphathi-zilumkiso xa ixesha labo liphelile. Ucela uphakamisa kuqala, kwaye angabeka inxalenye yexesha labo lokuphendula emva kokuba umphikisi ephikisane.
Impikiswano Edluliselwa Ngomlomo
Impikiswano engomlomo kufuneka igxininise ize icacise iingxoxo ezibhaliweyo kwiingxelo ezifutshane ezifanelekileyo. Icebiso lifanele licinge ukuba bonke abaSenziswa bezobulungisa baye bafunda izishwankathelo ezingaphambili zengxoxo edluliselwa ngomlomo. Kunokuba baphindaphinde nje oko kukwimifutshane, abathetheli abaphumelelayo basebenzisa ixesha labo ukugxininisa ezona ngongoma zibalulekileyo, baphendule kwiinkxalabo eziphakanyiswayo eziphakanyiswe kukuphikisa okanye ukushwankathelana kwentetho, kwaye baphendule imibuzo abagwebi abasenokuba banokuyiphendula.
Ezi mpikiswano lithuba lokuba amaJaji abuze imibuzo ngqo yamagqwetha amele amaqela akwityala, nokuba amagqwetha agxininise iimpikiswano azijonga njengezibalulekileyo. Ngokuqhelisa, iimpikiswano ezithethwayo phambi kweNkundla Ephakamileyo zisebenzisana kakhulu, yaye abagwebi badla ngokuphazamisa amagqwetha ukuba abuze imibuzo, aphakamise iingcamango, okanye acel ’ umngeni iingcamango ezisengqiqweni zempikiswano yabo.
Abaphandi abangaqhelananga nenkqubo yeNkundla Ephakamileyo basenokumangaliswa kufumanisa ukuba abagwebi abaphozisi maseko ngemibuzo. Ezinye iimpikiswano ziveza imibuzo emininzi kangangokuba amagqwetha azama ukugqiba amagqabaza awo alungiselelweyo. Abagwebi basebenzisa imibuzo kungekuphela nje ukucacisa ukuqonda kwabo kodwa kwanokuchaza inkxalabo kumalungu abo, bavavanye imida yemithetho esemthethweni, baze bahlolisise iintsingiselo ezisebenzisekayo zemithetho eyahlukeneyo.
Xa kuqalisa impikiswano, umxhasi uphazanyiswa rhoqo ngemibuzo evela kwibheri. Onempumelelo kwimpendulo yemibuzo esuka kwibhedi ngeli lixa eluka iingongoma eziphambili zengxoxo kwintetho. Oku kufuna ukuba amagqwetha alungiselele kakuhle kungekuphela nje ukudlulisela impikiswano ecwangcisiweyo, kodwa acinge ngeenyawo zawo aze aphendule imibuzo engalindelekilenga ngexesha egcina umsonto wentetho yawo yonke.
Ukufumaneka kwabantu bonke kwiimpikiswano ezithethwayo
Zonke iimpikiswano zomlomo zivulekele uwonke wonke, kodwa indawo yokuhlala ilinganiselwe. INkundla iqhuba inkqubo yokuqhuba apho amalungu kawonke-wonke anokufaka isicelo sokuhlalisa iNkundla nge-intanethi yelottery. Ngexesha locwangciso lomqhubi, indawo yokuhlalisa abantu kwiNkundla iza kufumaneka kuwonke wonke ngethuba lokuqala, ngesiseko sokuqala.
Abo bangakwaziyo ukuya ngamehlo, iNkundla Ephakamileyo yenza iintetho ezirekhodiweyo nezirekhodiweyo zengxoxo zifumaneke kuwonke wonke. Ukususela kwisifo se-COVID-19, iNkundla ilungiselele ukukhutshwa kwesandi okufanayo kwangemini enye nokusetyenziswa kwentetho evakalayo, ngokuphawulekayo ukukhutshelwa koluntu kule nkalo ibalulekileyo yeNkundla. Noko ke, ngokungafaniyo neenkundla ezininzi eziphakamileyo nenkundla ezisezantsi zikarhulumente, iNkundla ePhakamileyo ayikuvumeli ukushicilela okanye ukusasaza iimpikiswano zeNkundla.
Indima YeAmicus Curiae Kwimpikiswano Edluliselwa Ngamabinzana
Ngekhefu leNkundla, kwaye phantsi kwesiqendu 4 salo mthetho, icebiso nge-amicus curiae ebekwe kafutshane njengonikelwe kuMthetho 37 lisenokuphikisana kwicala leqela, ngemvume yalo qela. Nangona oku kuvumelekile, akuqhelekanga. Amatyala amaninzi abonakalisa amagqwetha kuphela kwala maqela ngokwawo, nangona kumatyala abalulekileyo okanye anzima, iNkundla isenokuvumela ixesha elingakumbi lokuthatha inxaxheba, eliqheleke kakhulu kuSolicyitor General xa iUnited States igcina i-ams.
Inkqubo yeNgqungquthela nokwenziwa kwesigqibo
Emva kokuqukumbela iimpikiswano ezithethwayo, abagwebi badibana engqungqutheleni ukuze baxubushe ityala baze bavote kuqala. Le nkomfa yenye yezona nkalo zifihlakeleyo zoqheliselo lweNkundla Ephakamileyo, enemithetho engqongqo elungiselelwe ukuqinisekisa ukuba abagwebi banokuyilungisa ngabom ngaphandle kwempembelelo okanye impembelelo yangaphandle.
Igumbi leNgqungquthela
Ngokwemithetho elandelwayo yeNkundla Ephakamileyo, kuphela amaJaji avumelekileyo kwigumbi leNgqungquthela ngeli xesha, "akukho mapolisa, ababhali-mthetho, onobhala, njalo njalo. IJaji eyintloko ibiza intlanganiso ukuba ilungelelane kwaye, njengomqondiso wesimo sequmrhu elingumthetho, zonke iziko leMithetho zezobulungisa ziyaxhawulana. Lo mcimbi wezandla, owenziwa phambi kwengqungquthela nganye, ubonisa intlonelo phakathi kwabagwebi naxa bengavumelani kwimibandela engokwasemthethweni.
Emva kokuba kucetyiswa ukuba kwenziwe izicelo zecertiorari, amaJaji aqalisa ukuxubusha ngamatyala athethwa ukususela kwiNgqungquthela yokugqibela. Ingxubusho yamatyala axambulisanayo ilandela indlela elungelelanisiweyo elungiselelwe ukuqinisekisa ukuba zonke iziko linethuba lokuvakalisa iimbono zawo.
Incoko Nomsebenzi
Ngokwemithetho elandelwayo yeNkundla Ephakamileyo, bonke abaSekela-mthetho banethuba lokuchaza iimbono zabo ngetyala baze baphakamise nayiphi na imibuzo okanye inkxalabo abasenokuba banayo. IJaji nganye ithetha ngaphandle kokuphazanyiswa zezinye. IJaji Enkulu yenza ingxelo yokuqala, ngoko iJaji nganye ithetha ngolungelelwano lokwehla komgangatho ophezulu, iphela ngowona mgwebi mncinane.
Lo myalelo usekelwe kulwimi oluphezulu usebenza iinjongo ezininzi. Iqinisekisa ukuba abagwebi abanamava bamisela ingxubusho yokuqala, ngeli xesha beqinisekisa ukuba abagwebi abancinane abaphenjelelwa ngokungeyomfuneko zizalamane zabo ezinkulu ngaphambi kokuchaza iimbono zabo. Lo myalelo ukwabonisa izithethe zabaphathi-mikhosi beNkundla ngeli lixa ugcina ukulingana phakathi kwabagwebi ngokweemeko zamandla abo okuvota.
Emva kwengxoxo, amatyala avota ngeziphumo zetyala. Ukuvota okuthatyathwe kwingqungquthela kukwakuqala kwaye kungatshintsha njengoko inkqubo yokubhalwa koluvo ityhileka. Noko ke, ingqungquthela imisela ukuba liliphi icala eliza kulawula lize linikezele isiseko soluvo lweNkundla.
Umsebenzi Woluvo
Ukuba iJaji ePhakamileyo ikuninzi, banika omnye wabagwebi abakwiNkundla uluvo lwabo, okanye bangakhetha ukulubhala ngokwabo. Ukuba iJaji eyiNtloko ikumgangatho ophezulu, iJaji enkulu kuninzi yenza eso sabelo. Eli gunya lesabelo libalulekile kuba livumela ukuba ukwenziwa kobulungisa kuphembelele indlela ingqiqo yeNkundla echazwa ngayo kwaye ngabaphi abagwebi abaza kuba nembopheleleko ephambili yokwenza umthetho osemthethweni.
Isigqibo sesabelo singaphenjelelwa ziimeko ezininzi, kuquka ubuchule bokulungisa kwingingqi yomthetho, imfuneko yokusasaza umsebenzi onzima, ingqwalasela ezilungeleleneyo ezithi okusesikweni kulungele ukudibanisa uninzi, nomnqweno wokunika abalawuli abathile amathuba okubhala kwiimeko ezibalulekileyo.
Ukubhala Uluvo Nokupapashwa
Inkqubo yokubhala nokulungisa iimbono zeNkundla Ephakamileyo ingathabatha iiveki okanye kwaneenyanga. IJaji eyabelwe ukubhala uluvo lwabaninzi ilungiselela idrafti ize iyidlulisele kwezinye izigwebi ukuze zihlole kwaye zigqabaze. Le nkqubo yokujikeleza ithetha intsingiselo, kunye nabagwebi bacebisa iinguqu, ukuphakamisa inkxalabo, okanye ukubonisa enoba baza kuthelelana na kule mbono.
Iindlela Zokucinga
Izigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo ziquka iindidi eziliqela zeembono. uluvo lobunyani lumela imbono yamatyala amahlanu ubuncinane kwaye lubumba umthetho osemthethweni weNkundla. Olu luvo lunexabiso elimiselayo kwaye lubophelela iinkundla ezisezantsi. Uluvo luchaza indlela yeNkundla eqikelelwa ngayo, isebenzisa imigaqo enxulumene nomthetho, kwaye luchaza umthetho oza kulawula amatyala afanayo kwixesha elizayo.
Uluvo olukhawulezileyo [[[FLT: 0] lubhalwe ngubulungisa obuvumelana neziphumo ezifikelelwa sisininzi kodwa obungavumelaniyo nenkalo ethile yengqiqo yoninzi okanye umnqweno wokugxininisa iingongoma ezahlukeneyo. Iimbono eziqukuqelayo azinabubunzima obufanayo njengoluvo lwabaninzi, kodwa zingaba nempembelelo ekulungiseni indlela iinkundla ezisezantsi kunye neeNkundla eziPhakamileyo ezisichaza ngayo isigqibo.
I- uluvo oluvumelayo lubhalwe ngomnye okanye baninzi abachasayo kwisigqibo soninzi. Ngexa ukungavumelani nomthetho kungekho siphumo sangoko, basebenza imisebenzi ebalulekileyo. Bangabalaselisa iintsilelo kwingqiqo yoninzi, bagcine ezinye iinkcazelo ukwenzela uqwalaselo lwexesha elizayo, kwaye ngamanye amaxesha babeka isiseko seenguqu kamva kumthetho. Ezinye iimbono zodumo ziye ekugqibeleni zaba yimbono enkulu kwiimeko ezilandelayo.
Uluvo lobubanzi luyenzeka xa kungekho nto ifanelekileyo ilawula uninzi lweNkundla. Kwiimeko ezinjalo, isigwebo seNkundla sinqulwa ngowona mgaqo mxinwa apho uninzi luvumelana khona, kodwa akukho luvo lwabantu luchaza indlela yeNkundla. Iimbono zoluntu zidala ukungaqiniseki ngexabiso lesigqibo kwaye zingenza imigudu yenkundla ephantsi izenze ngxaki.
Ujikelezo Nenkqubo Yoguqulelo
Emva kokuba idrafti yokuqala isasazwe, abanye abagwebi bangathumela imisebenzi ecebisa utshintsho, ukubuza iindinyana ezithile, okanye ukubonisa ukuba baza kudibana noluvo kuphela ukuba utshintsho oluthile lwenziwe. Umbhali woluvo kufuneka alungelelanise inkxalabo nezinto azithandayo ngexesha ezama ukugcina umanyano lwabaninzi. Maxa wambi abagwebi abaqala ngokuvota nabantu abaninzi engqungqutheleni bangacima amavo abo ukuba abanelisekanga ngengqiqo yoluvo.
Le nkqubo yengxoxo ingenza utshintsho olubalulekileyo kuluvo. Iindlela zokudlula zingadityaniswa, zicinywe, okanye zibhalwe kwakhona ukuze ziphendule inkxalabo eziphakanyiswe zezinye izigwebo. Kwezinye iimeko, uluvo lungancitshiswa ukukhusela amavoti awongezelelekileyo, okanye lwandiswe ukuba umbhali ukholelwa ukuba intetho eyomelele ngakumbi ivumelekile kwaye iyakwazi ukugcina inkxaso enkulu.
Ukwenzeka nokungavumelani kweembono kuhamba ngendlela efanayo, kunye needrafti ezijikelezayo kwaye zinokudibana kunye kwiisivumelwano ezidityanisiweyo okanye ezichaseneyo. Umva-fuku phakathi kwamatyala kuyaqhubeka de zonke izimvo zigqitywe kwaye zilungele ukupapashwa.
Isaziso noKhupho
Xa izimvo zilungile, zibhengezwa kwinkundla evulekileyo. Ngokwesiko, iJaji eyabhala uluvo lwabaninzi ifunda iinxalenye zayo kwisitulo, yaye abagwebi ababhala iimbono eziphikisanayo nabo basenokuzishwankathela iimbono zabo. Kwiminyaka yakutshanje, iNkundla iye yashukunyiselwa kwizibhengezo ezifutshane ezidluliselweyo, kunye neembono ezipheleleyo eziye zafumaneka ngexesha elinye.
Izimvo zipapashwa kwiUnited States Reports, umcholacholi wezigqibo zeNkundla Ephakamileyo. Zikwafumaneka ngoko nangoko kwi-webhsayithi yeNkundla nakwii-data ezahlukeneyo ezingokwasemthethweni. Impapasho yembono yeNkundla Ephakamileyo ibonisa isiphumo senkqubo esenokuba yaqala kwiminyaka engaphambili xa eli tyala labekwa kwinkundla esezantsi.
Iindidi Zezigqibo Zenkundla Ephakamileyo
INkundla ePhakamileyo ingawalahla amatyala ngeendlela ezininzi ezahlukeneyo, nganye eneefuno ezihlukeneyo zomthetho. Ukuqonda ezintlobo ezahlukeneyo zezimo zengqondo kubalulekile ekuqondeni iziphumo zeNkundla kwinkqubo esemthethweni.
Ukuqina
Xa iNkundla ePhakamileyo iqinisekisa isigqibo senkundla esezantsi, iyavumelana neso sigqibo kunye nokuqiqa kwenkundla. Isigqibo senkundla esezantsi simile, kwaye imigaqo esemthethweni esetyenziswa yiloo nkundla ivunywe yiNkundla Ephakamileyo. Ukuqina kunika isiqinisekiso sokufikelela kwenkundla esezantsi kwaye kuqinisekisa ukuba ukutolikwa kwayo umthetho kulungile.
Isenzo sokutshintsha
Utshintsho luyenzeka xa iNkundla ePhakamileyo ingavumelani nesigqibo senkundla esezantsi ize isisahlule. Inkundla yagqiba amatyala angama-67, ibuyisela inkundla esezantsi kwingulo 47 (74,6 ekhulwini). Eli qondo liphezulu lokubuyisela liye libonisa isibakala sokuba iNkundla Ephakamileyo isoloko inika iCertioriari kwiimeko apho ikholelwa ukuba inkundla esezantsi isenokuba iye yaphambuka. Ngelo xesha, iNkundla Ephakamileyo yasiguqula isigqibo esisezantsi senkundla (71,3 76,3 ekhulwini) yaza yaqinisekisa isigqibo esisezantsi senkundla izihlandlo ezingama-377 (27,8 phesenti).
Xa iNkundla ijika isigqibo, inikela iinkcukacha zokucacisa isizathu sokuba uhlalutyo lwenkundla esezantsi luphosakele. Ukuguqulwa kumisela umthetho omtsha osemthethweni okanye kucacisa ukucaciswa okufanelekileyo komthetho okhoyo, inkundla esezantsi ekufuneka ilandelwe kwiimeko zexesha elizayo.
I-Remand
Kwiimeko ezininzi, iNkundla ePhakamileyo iphinda ilimise eli tyala ibuyele kwinkundla esezantsi ukwenzela ukuqhutyelwa phambili. Ityala eliqukunjelweyo lingahambisana nokungqinelana okanye ukubuyiselwa. Xa iNkundla ijika iphinde iguqule, iyalela inkundla esezantsi ukuba iphinde ilihlolisise eli tyala ngokubhekiselele kwisigqibo seNkundla Ephakamileyo ize ithabathe inyathelo elongezelelekileyo elivisisana neso sigqibo.
Amatyala angathatha iindlela ezahlukeneyo. Inkundla ingaphinda ichaze oko inkundla esezantsi isenokukwenza ukuba isebenzise umgangatho ofanelekileyo womthetho, ukwenza iingxelo ezongezelelekileyo, ukuqwalasela imibandela engabhekiswanga kakuhle, okanye ukungena kwisigwebo esihambelana nesigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo. Umyalelo ophinda wabekwa uchaza oko inkundla esezantsi imele ikwenze, nangona inkundla esezantsi igcina ingqiqo ekuphumezeni ummiselo weNkundla Ephakamileyo.
Vacate
Inkundla ePhakamileyo ingasilahla isigqibo senkundla esezantsi, okuthetha ukuba siyasitshitshisa eso sigqibo ngaphandle kokusiguqula. ISityalo sisetyenziswa rhoqo xa isigqibo senkundla engaphantsi sisekelwe kumthetho oye watshintshwa, xa kukho ukungaguquguquki kwemiqathango, okanye xa ityala lisiba libi yimeko engaqhelekanga. Isigqibo esiphenjelelweyo asinawo umphumo wamva.
Irhoxisiwe
Maxa wambi iNkundla ePhakamileyo ikhupha icala emva kokulinika ityala, ngokuqhelekileyo ngenxa yokuba ityala liye lazinza, okanye iNkundla igqibe kwelokuba isibeleko savunyelwa ngokungenalusini (ukuthetha oko iNkundla ayifanelenga ivume ukuliva elo tyala). Ukugxothwa akuqhelekanga kodwa kuyenzeka.
Impembelelo Nexabiso Lezigqibo Zenkundla Ephakamileyo
Izigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo zineziphumo ezifikelela kude eziya kuthi zidlulele ngaphaya kwamaqela akhawulezileyo kwityala. Ukuqonda indlela ezi zigwebo eziyichaphazela ngayo inkqubo yomthetho kubalulekile ekuqondeni indima yeNkundla ekulawuleni kwamaMelika.
Iziqalelo Zolawulo
Phantsi kwemfundiso yokujongwa kwedecis() kwesiLatini ukwenzela "ukuma ngokwezinto ezigqitywe""/_Izigwebo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo zimisela isalathisi esingumzekelo ezimele zilandelwe ziinkundla ezisezantsi. Xa iNkundla ePhakamileyo ichaza ilungiselelo lomgaqo-siseko okanye umthetho wesizwe, oko kutolikwa kuba ngumthetho welizwe. Iinkundla zomanyano kulo lonke ilizwe kufuneka zisebenzise ingqiqo yeNkundla ePhakamileyo kwiimeko ezifanayo, kwaye iinkundla zikarhulumente kufuneka zilandele iingcaciso zeNkundla ePhakamileyo yomthetho karhulumente.
Le nkqubo ingumzekelo ikhuthaza ukungaguquguquki nokuxelwa kwangaphambili komthetho. Amatheko anokuthembela kwizigqibo zeNkundla Ephakamileyo ukuze aqonde amalungelo neembopheleleko zawo ezisemthethweni, kwaye iinkundla ezisezantsi zinemigaqo ecacileyo ngendlela yokucombulula iimpikiswano ezifanayo. Ixabiso lezigqibo zeNkundla Ephakamileyo lizenza zibe zizixhobo ezinamandla zokuguqula imfundiso engokwasemthethweni kwiimbambano ezininzi.
Ukucaciswa komGaqo-siseko
Xa iNkundla ePhakamileyo ichaza umGaqo-siseko, isigqibo sayo sinokupheliswa kuphela sisigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo okanye ngokutshintshwa komgaqo-siseko. Oku kwenza izigqibo zomgaqo-siseko zibeluleka ngakumbi kwaye zihlale ixesha elide. Iimeko zelizwe ezifana noBrown v. Ibhodi yemfundo (exhasa imvume yesikolo), iMiranda v. Arizona (ukumiswa kwamalungelo eMiranda), kunye ne Roe v. Wade (evuma ilungelo lomgaqo-siseko ekushenxiseni, kamva yabhukuqe kuDobs v. Jackson’s Health Organization) iye yalolonga ibutho lezentlalo-ntle yaseMelika kunye nomthetho.
Amandla eNkundla okuchaza umGaqo-siseko awenza ube ngumdlali obalulekileyo kwiingxoxo eziphathelele amalungelo abantu, urhulumente, ukwahlukana kwamagunya, neminye imibuzo esisiseko yokulawula. Izigqibo zomGaqo-siseko zidla ngokubonakalisa iingxoxo ezibanzi zentlalo nezobupolitika, kwaye izigqibo zeNkundla zingakhawulezisa okanye zithintele iinguqulelo zentlalo.
Inkcazelo yesiseko
Xa iNkundla ePhakamileyo ichaza imithetho karhulumente, iNkundla igcina amandla okuphelisa ukutolikwa kweNkundla ngokugweba lo mthetho. Noko ke, isenzo sombutho sifuna ukuba kudlule izindlu zombini zeBhunga kunye nosayino lomongameli (okanye i-veto), nto leyo enokuba nzima ukufikelela. Ngenxa yoko, iinkcazelo ezininzi zeNkundla Ephakamileyo zisebenza kangangeminyaka okanye amashumi eminyaka, kwanokuba iBhunga alivumelani nazo.
Indlela yeNkundla yokutolika imithetho iye yaguquka ngokuhamba kwexesha kwaye yahluka-hluka phakathi kwamalungisa. Ezinye izigwebi zigxininisa umbhalo ocacileyo wemimiselo, ngoxa ezinye ziqwalasela imbali yowiso-mthetho nenjongo. Olu mahluko wendlela yokusebenza ungakhokelela kwinkcazelo eyahlukileyo yolwimi olunye lomthetho kwaye unegalelo kwiingxubusho phakathi kwabagwebi.
Impembelelo kwiiNkundla Ezisezantsi
Iinkundla ezisezantsi ziqwalasela ngokusondeleyo izigqibo zeNkundla Ephakamileyo kwaye zisebenzela ukuzisebenzisa ngokuthembeka. Xa iNkundla ePhakamileyo ivakalisa umthetho omtsha okanye icacisa umthetho okhoyo, iinkundla ezisezantsi kufuneka zilungise imisebenzi yazo ngokufanelekileyo. Oku kunokufuna ukuba ziwagxothe amatyala angaphambili, ziphinde ziqwalasele izigqibo zangaphambili, okanye zisebenzise iinkqubo eziphuculiweyo ukuze zivumelane nogunyaziso lweNkundla Ephakamileyo.
Ulwalamano phakathi kweNkundla Ephakamileyo neenkundla eziphantsi alusoloko luchanile. Iimbono zeNkundla ePhakamileyo zingashiya imibuzo ethile ingaphendulwanga, ifuna ukuba iinkundla ezisezantsi zizalise imida zize zisebenzise imigaqo eqhelekileyo kwiimeko ezithile ezibunyani. Iinkundla ezisezantsi zisenokukwahlula imizekelo yeNkundla Ephakamileyo, ziphikisa ngelithi ukungavisisani kwezibakala okanye kwimibandela engokwasemthethweni kwenza imizekelo engqineke ingenakusetyenziswa kwityala elikhoyo.
Impembelelo Ephangaleleyo Entlalweni Nakwezobupolitika
Ngapha koko, izigqibo zeNkundla Ephakamileyo ngokufuthi zinezigqibo eziphawulekayo zentlalo nezobupolitika. Izigqibo kwimibandela ethanda ukuqhushumbisa njengokuqhomfa, ukuvuma, amalungelo emipu, iphulo lemali nenkululeko yonqulo zibangela ingxoxo enkulu kawonke wonke yaye zinokuphembelela unyulo, imibutho yentlalo, kunye nenkqubo kawonke wonke.
Izigqibo zeNkundla zinokwenza izenzo zikarhulumente zigunyazwe okanye zithotyelwe, zigunyazise okanye zithintele intsebenziswano, zize zijike uluvo loluntu ngemilinganiselo yomgaqo-siseko. Ngoxa iNkundla ingenalo igunya lokunyanzelisa izigqibo zayo,(ukuxhomekeka kwisebe elilawulayo ukuze linyanzele ukunyanzeliswa kwamagosa asemthethweni) kwaye ulwamkelo lokuziphatha kunye nokuqiqa komthetho lungamandla anamandla okutshintsha.
Imisebenzi Neemeko Ezikhethekileyo
Ngoxa amatyala amaninzi enkundla Ephakamileyo elandela inkqubo echazwe ngasentla, kukho iinkqubo neemeko eziliqela ezikhethekileyo ezifuna ukuqwalaselwa.
Iinkqubo zexesha likaxakeka kunye neshadocket
Ukongeza kubuchule bayo obuqhelekileyo, iNkundla ePhakamileyo isingatha izicelo ezininzi zongxamiseko zokuhlala, imimiselo, nezinye iimpumlo. Ezi zicelo, maxa wambi ezibizwa ngokuba yi-"shadowet," zivumela amaqela ukuba afune ungenelelo olukhawulezileyo lweNkundla ePhakamileyo ngaphandle kokulinda impikiswano efutshane nenomlomo.
Izicelo zexesha lengxaki zigqibeka ngokukhawuleza, ngokufuthi ngengcaciso encinci. INkundla inganika okanye ingavumi ukukhulula ngomyalelo omfutshane, maxa wambi ikhatshwa ziintetho eziphikisanayo nezisuka kubagwebi abangavumelaniyo nesigqibo. Kwiminyaka yakutshanje, i-cricket ibalasele kakhulu kwaye ithandabuza, nabagxeki bephikisa ngokuthi iNkundla ivumela ukwenza izigqibo ezibalulekileyo ngaphandle kokukhanyisa nokuqwalasela okuphawula iimpahla eziqhelekileyo ezibalukileyo.
Oonobumba Bokuqala Bokutsha
Njengoko kukhankanywe ngaphambili, iNkundla ePhakamileyo inegunya lokuqala kwiintlobo ezithile zamatyala, ngokuyintloko kwiimpikiswano phakathi kwamatyala. La matyala anqabile ngokwentelekiso kodwa anokubandakanywa imibandela ebalulekileyo enjengamalungelo amanzi, iimpikiswano zomda, okanye ungquzulwano kwimithombo yendalo.
Kumatyala okuqala, iNkundla ePhakamileyo isebenza njengenkundla yamatyala, ifumana ubungqina kwaye yenza iiziphumo eziyinyaniso. Noko ke, iNkundla imisela uMphathi okhethekileyo . Ngokufuthi ijaji yephondo elidla ngokuthatha umhlala-phantsi okanye igqwetha elinamava (_ukuqhuba imicimbi, ukuphulaphula, nokulungiselela ingxelo ngeziphumo ezinconyelweyo neziphelisiweyo. Amaqela anokuyichaza ngokungafaniyo ingxelo yeNtloko ekhethekileyo, kwaye iNkundla ePhakamileyo yenza isigqibo sokugqibela.
Izigqibo Ezimanyumnyezi
Ezinye izigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo zikhutshwa ngentsebenziswano nganye, okuthetha ukuthi "ngenkundla" ngaphandle kokuchazwa kombhali othile. Iimbono zomthetho zisetyenziswa kumatyala acacileyo angafuni nkcazelo inzulu, ukutshintsha ngokufutshane izigqibo zenkundla eziphantsi eziphikisana ngokucacileyo nemizekelo yeNkundla ePhakamileyo, okanye imiyalelo yemiqathango.
Ngoxa imbono nganye yetyala idla ngokuba mifutshane kwaye ingenankcukacha zininzi kuneembono ezityikityweyo, isengumzekelo osisinyanzelo. Ezinye izigqibo zetyala ngalinye zithetha ngemibandela ebalulekileyo engokomthetho, nangona ukusetyenziswa kwefomati nganye kusenokubonisa ukuba iNkundla ijonge eli tyala njengelicacileyo okanye elingagunyazi uluvo olutyikitywe ngokupheleleyo.
Ukuzithethelela Nokungavisisani
Amatyala asenokuzithethelela kumatyala apho kukho ukungavisisani komdla, njengokuxatyiswa ngemali ngenxa yeziphumo, ngaphambi kokuba babandakanyeke kwityala, okanye ulwalamano lobuqu namaqela okanye namagqwetha. Umthetho wesiQaphela-manyeneyo nemithetho yemigaqo yezomthetho ilawula ukubekwa ityala, nangona abagwebi beNkundla ePhakamileyo benengqiqo engakumbi ekugqibeni enoba baya kuphinda bamangalelwe kusini na.
Xa ityala libekwa kwakhona, ityala ligwetywa ngabagwebi abaseleyo. Ukuba iNkundla yahlulelene (ngokomlinganiselo 4-4 xa ityala elinye liphinde labekwa ityala), isigqibo senkundla esezantsi siyaqinisekiswa yiNkundla eyahlulelene ngokulinganayo, kodwa ngaphandle kokumisela umzekelo. Oku kushiya isigqibo senkundla esezantsi endaweni yamaqela kodwa akumiselichazi umthetho omele ulandelwe zezinye iinkundla.
Inkundla Ephakamileyo Ejikelezayo
Izibuko leNkundla ePhakamileyo litshintshe ngokuphawulekayo ekuhambeni kwexesha, ngokwenani lamatyala agqitywe kunye neentlobo zemiba ebhekiswa kuzo. Ukuqonda ezi meko kunika ukuqonda ngendaleko yeNkundla kunye nendima yayo eguqukayo kumthetho waseMelika.
Idosikoti Edilikayo
INkundla ePhakamileyo igqiba ngamatyala ambalwa namhlanje kunalawo yawenzayo kwiminyaka emininzi eyadlulayo. Ngoo1980, iNkundla yagqiba rhoqo ukuba amatyala ali-150 okanye ngaphezulu qho ngexesha ngalinye. Namhlanje, elo nani liye lehla malunga namatyala angama-60-80 ngexesha ngalinye. Oku kuncitshisiwe nokokuba inani lezicelo ezigcinweyo liye lahlala lizinzile okanye landa.
Zininzi iingcaciso eziye zanikelwa ngemathiriyeli ehlayo. Bambi abaphengululi balatha ekuphelisweni kwezona zibheno zinyanzelekileyo ngo 1988, ezanika iNkundla ingqiqo engakumbi kwizibuko layo. Abanye bacebisa ukuba amatyala aye akhetha ukukhetha kuphela amatyala abalulekileyo. Kwaye abanye baphikisa ukuba utshintsho kumthetho osemthethweni, njengokwanda kokufana kweenkundla zesiphaluka okanye utshintsho kwimiqathango yetyala, luye lwanciphisa inani lamatyala afuna ukungenelela kweNkundla ePhakamileyo.
Enoba ziyintoni na izizathu, eli dokisi lincinane lithetha ukuba iNkundla ithetha ngeembambano ezimbalwa zomthetho, nto leyo enokubangela ukuba imibuzo engakumbi ingaphendulwa ize inike iinkundla ezingaphantsi inkululeko engakumbi ekutolikeni umthetho karhulumente.
Iindidi Zomzekelo
Izibuko leNkundla ePhakamileyo liquka iindidi ezininzi zamatyala abandakanya umthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho, amalungelo abantu, urhwebo, umthetho wolawulo, umthetho womgaqo-siseko, nezinye iindawo ezininzi. Ukuxuba kwezityholo kuyahluka ngokwegama kuxhomekeke kwigama apho izicelo zivunywa khona kwaye naziphi imibandela ezahlulayo kwiinkundla ezisezantsi.
Ezinye iinkalo zomthetho zivelisa amatyala angaphezulu kunezinye. Inkqubo yezaphuli-mthetho, imiba yokuHlakulelwa koMgaqo-nkqubo wokuqala, nemibuzo ephathelele umgangatho wegunya lolawulo lorhulumente zizihloko ezingapheliyo kwizibuko leNkundla. Kwiminyaka yakutshanje, iNkundla iye yathetha nangamanye amatyala abandakanya umthetho wolawulo, ukuhlaziywa, ukulondolozwa kokhuseleko olufanelekileyo, kunye nokudityaniswa kwemithetho yonqulo nezobuhlanga.
Izibuko leNkundla libonisa intsingiselo ebanzi kumthetho waseMelika nakwibutho labantu. Njengoko kuvela ubugcisa obutsha, kuvela imibuzo emitsha engokwasemthethweni enokuthi ekugqibeleni ifike kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo. Njengoko isimo sengqondo sentlalo siguquka, amatyala abandakanya imicimbi ebezinziswe ngaphambili asenokuphinda aphinde abuye. Yaye njengoko amasebe ezobupolitika ethatha inyathelo kwimibandela ephikisanayo, ucelomngeni lwezo zenzo lungakhokelela kwiNkundla.
Ukugxekwa Notshintsho
Iinkqubo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo kunye nezenzo ziye zathotyelwa ugxeko oluninzi, kwaye iinguqu ezininzi ziye zacetywa ukudlula iminyaka. Ukuqonda ezi ngxoxo kunika umongo obalulekileyo wokuvavanya indima yeNkundla kwinkqubo yomthetho waseMelika.
Ukucaca kwengxelo nokuphendula
Abahlalutyi baye bacela ukuba kubekho ukubonakala okungakumbi kwimisebenzi yeNkundla ePhakamileyo. Ngokungafaniyo neenkundla ezisezantsi zephondo, iNkundla ePhakamileyo ayithotyelwa nguMthetho weNdlela yaBagwebi baseUnited States, nangona abagwebi bethe bajonga iKhowudi ukuze bafumane ukhokelo. Abanye abaTyeli-phambili baxhasa imigaqo yokuziphatha enyanzelisayo yabagwebi abaPhakathi-Nkundla, kunye nenkqubo yokuqinisekisa ukuhlangabezana nokuchaswa kwemithetho.
Ezinye izinto ezibonisa ukuba kukho ingcebiso eziquka ukunqongophala kweekhamera enkundla, ukufihla ingcinga ejikeleze inkqubo ye-ceretari, kunye nenkcazelo kawonke-wonke elinganiselweyo malunga neemfuno zemali kunye nemisebenzi yangaphandle. Abaxhasi bezokubona ngaphaya kwembali baphikisa ngelithi kuya kwenza abantu bathembeke kwiNkundla baze baqinisekise ukuba abachasi-mthetho banokuphendula, ngoxa abachasi bexhalabele ukuba ingaphazamisana nenkululeko yabagwebi baze bathotyelwe phantsi kwengcinezelo engafanelekanga.
Imida Yexesha Nenkundla Ekhulayo
Abanye abaguquli baye bacebisa imida yexesha elifutshane yamatyala eNkundla Ephakamileyo, bephikisa ngelithi ubomi obuninzi bukhokelela kumatyala akhonza amashumi eminyaka kwaye banika oomongameli abanokuba nezithuba ezininzi ngexesha legama labo elikhutshwayo kwimpembelelo engaphandle kwengxelo yeNkundla. Iingcinga ezahlukeneyo zegama ezithenjiweyo, ezibandakanya imiyalelo yeminyaka eli-18 ekhuthuzayo eqinisekisa ukuba umongameli ngamnye umisela iiJaji ezimbini ngexesha leminyaka emine.
Abanye baye bacebisa ukuba kwandiswe inani labagwebi eNkundleni, mhlawumbi ukuphinda baphucule indlela abacinga ngayo okanye ukunciphisa amanyathelo okumiswa kwabantu ngabanye. Iingcebiso zolwandiso lweNkundla ziyaphikisana kwaye ziphakamisa inkxalabo ngokutshintsha iNkundla nokuxhobisa umjikelo wolwando nowokungamela utshintsho lolawulo lwezobupolitika.
Ukhetho Lomzekelo kunye nomthwalo wokusebenza
Abanye abajongi baye bagxeka ukhetho lwetyala lweNkundla, bephikisa ngelithi iNkundla inika isibeleko esinetyala kwityala elingephi, ishiya imibuzo ebalulekileyo engokwasemthethweni ingaphendulwa kwaye ivumela izahlulo zesiphaluka ukuba ziqhubeke. Abanye baphikisa ngelithi iNkundla ifanele ikhethe kakuhle ngakumbi xa kukhethwa amatyala, igxininise kwimibandela ebaluleke kakhulu kumazwe kunokuba iqwalaselwe kwimibuzo engokwasemthethweni.
Izizathu zokulungisa le ngxaki ziquka ukuvelisa inkundla ephakathi yokusombulula uqheko lwesiphaluka, ifuna ukuba iNkundla yamkele inani elincinane lamatyala ngegama, okanye itshintshe indlela yokunika isibeleko ukuqinisekisa ukuba iintlobo ezithile zamatyala zifumana uhlalutyo olukwiNkundla ePhakamileyo.
Imithombo Yokuqonda Amatyala ENkundla Ephakamileyo
Abo banomdla wokufunda okungakumbi ngamatyala eNkundla Ephakamileyo nalandela umsebenzi weNkundla, kukho oovimba abaninzi. Iwebhthi esemthethweni yeNkundla Ephakamileyo ([FLT: 0] http://wwww.upremecourt.gov)) inika unikezelo kwiimbono, iingxoxo ezidluliselwa ngomlomo kunye nesandi, imithetho yeNkundla, nolwazi malunga namatyala nembali yeNkundla.
Ii-data ezisemthethweni ezifana neWeslaw, iLexisNexis, kunye noSongla we-Google zinikezela ngeembono zeNkundla Ephakamileyo nezinto ezinxulumene nayo. Iiwebhsayithi ezininzi zesikolo zinika iikliniki zeNkundla Ephakamileyo okanye imisebenzi enika uhlalutyo kunye nezinto zokuqonda umsebenzi weNkundla.
Abo banomdla kwinkqubela-phambili yembali yemfundiso yeNkundla Ephakamileyo, oovimba njenge projekthi ye-Oyez ( https://wwww.oyez.org) banikela unikezelo oluninzi lwe-media kumatyala eNkundla Ephakamileyo, kuquka isandi seengxoxo ezithethwayo, ukushwankathela kwezigqibo, kunye nolwazi malunga nezigwebo. Ithala leencwadi leBhunga kunye noovimba bamaZiko-Rhoqonga nazo zigcina iingqokelela yezixhobo eziPhakadelelane.
Olindixesha abafundisayo abanjenge Harvard Law Review, Yale Law Journal, ne Stanford Law Review bapapasha amanqaku rhoqo ehlalutya izigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo kunye neenkqubo. Ezi nhlalutyo zinika uhlolo olunzulu ngengqiqo yeNkundla kunye neziphumo zezigqibo zayo.
Isiphelo
Inkqubo yeNkundla ePhakamileyo yokuchophela nokugqiba amatyala ibonisa ukulungelelana kobuchule phakathi kokufumaneka nokukhetha, phakathi kokubonakala nokucaciswa, kunye naphakathi kozinzo kunye nendaleko. Ukusuka kwisicelo sokuqala se-certiori ngokuthetha nangengxoxo yoluvo ukuya kwimpapasho yokugqibela yezigqibo, isigaba ngasinye senkqubo sisebenza imisebenzi ebalulekileyo ukuqinisekisa ukuba iNkundla ingayifeza indima yayo yesiseko somthetho worhulumente njengomxhasi wokugqibela.
Ukuqonda indlela amatyala afikelela ngayo kwiNkundla Ephakamileyo nendlela egqitywe ngayo kubalulekile kuye nabani na ofuna ukuqonda inkqubo yomthetho waseMerika. Izigqibo zeNkundla zibumba umthetho womGaqo-siseko, zichaza imimiselo karhulumente, zicombulule iimpikiswano phakathi kwamazwe, kwaye zicombulule eminye yezona mpikiswano kwibutho lamaMerika. Imizekelo emiselwe yiNkundla ePhakamileyo iphembelela umsebenzi wemihla ngemihla wabagwebi, amagqwetha, namagosa karhulumente kulo lonke elo lizwe.
Ngeli xesha iinkqubo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo ziguqukile ngaphezu kweenkulungwane ezimbini, imigaqo esisiseko esekelwe kumsebenzi wayo ihlala ihleli: ukuqwalaselwa ngenyameko kweempikiswano zomthetho, ukuqiqa phakathi kwezigwebo, ukuqiqa ngengcaciso, kunye nokuhlonela imigaqo elungelelaniswe nemfuneko yokuvumelanisa umthetho neemeko ezitshintshayo. Le migaqo iqinisekisa ukuba iNkundla ePhakamileyo ingasebenza njengegunya elizinzisayo kwidemokhrasi yaseMelika ngelixa ihlala isabela kwiimfuno ezinxulumene nohlanga.
Njengoko iNkundla ePhakamileyo iqhubeka ilungisa iingxaki ezintsha neempikiswano, ukuqonda iinkqubo neenkqubo zayo kuya kubaluleke ngakumbi kubemi, kumagqwetha, kubenzi bemigaqo-mthetho, nakumntu wonke onomdla kumthetho. Umsebenzi weNkundla uchaphazela imibuzo esisiseko ngamalungelo, igunya likarhulumente, kunye nesakhiwo sebutho labantu baseMerika, ukuyenza ibe yenye yeentlangano ezibaluleke kakhulu kurhulumente waseUnited States.