Imfundiso yokukhetha i-Gawulayo iye yasebenza kade njengesiseko somthetho-siseko waseMerika, ichaza umsantsa phakathi kweBhili yamaLungelo kunye nolawulo lorhulumente. Ukususela ekuqaleni kwenkulungwane yamashumi amabini, iNkundla ePhakamileyo iye yasebenzisa iSivumelwano seSivumelwano se-144 seSimo soLawulo luka-Celasmende ukusebenzisa ukhuseleko oluthile lwamazwe, ngokusisiseko ululungisa ulwalamano phakathi kwenkululeko yomntu ngamnye kunye negunya likarhulumente. Njengoko sihamba nzulu nzulu nzulu nzulu kumashumi amabini amashumi amabini anesihlanu enkulungwane, isiseko sabalawuli bezobugcisa esiphenjelelwa kukuguquka kwezobugcisa, ukuhla kwezobupolitika, ukutshintsha, kunye nokutshintsha kweentanda-bulumko zomthetho. Kukho ukuphuhlisa kwabafundi, ukuqondwa kwamashumi eminyaka engokwasemthethweni, ukuqonda apho le mfundiso iphambili ekunyulweni kwelungelo lamalungelo abantu kunye negunyazwezwezwe. Eli lilonke elilawulayo, elizimo lokuhlola iingxelo zeNkuchaza iingxelo zeNkuchaza zeNkuchaza zeNkupho ezichaza-G.

Ukuqonda Ukuhambelana Okubalulekileyo

Isenzo esikhethekayo ngumgaqo-siseko osetyenziswa yiNkundla ePhakamileyo ekusebenziseni ngawo onke amalungiselelo eBhili yamaLungelo kumaphondo ukudlula kwiNkqubo yoLawulo ye 14 ka-Claus. Ngokungafaniyo noququzelo loMsebenzi wonke wamaLungelo, oyakusebenzisa iBhili yoMalungelo, ukuququzelela okukhetha okuqhubekeka ngokufanelekileyo, ukuvavanya ukusisiseko kokhuseleko ngalunye kucwangciso lwenkululeko oluyalelweyo lwaseMelika.

Imvelaphi yale mfundiso yale mihla ibuyela emva Gitlow v. New York (1925), apho iNkundla yaqala ukuchaza ukuba uKhuseleko lokuqala olukhululekileyo lwasetyenziswa kumazwe. Kwiminyaka elandelayo, iNkundla ifake phantse zonke iiBhili zamalungelo, kuquka inkululeko yokucofa, ilungelo lokuthwala izixhobo, ukukhusela ekuphandeni okungekho ngqiqweni nasekuxweni, ilungelo lokuzicebisa, nokungavumelani nokuzidibanisela. Ngokungachasanayo kuquke izigwebo ezintle zomthetho wesihlanu, izigwebo zetyala zesizwe, ukuvavanywa kwetyala kwasekunene, kunye nokurhoxiswa kwewo-osi-omatilo-si-si-siThathu, nangona kunqabile ukusetyenziswa kwe-onqanda.

Isiseko sengcamango yokuqulunqwa kokhetho sisekelwe kwingcamango "yokungalingani siseko sobulungisa." Palko v.Connecticut [1937], Justice Cardozo wachaza ukuba kuphela amalungelo "e-"amagunya" kwingcamango yenkululeko" kufuneka aqukiswe — lawo alo "awokwesona sicwangciso somthetho senkululeko." Lo mlinganiselo uvele kwixesha elithile, ngeNkungenelela kweNkunganiso eqinileyo kamva kwimeko efana Duncan. [1968], asebenzisa ukuvavanywa kwe-salatha ekunene kwe-mthetho elungele ukuvavanya ukuba ngaba ulunyuko lulungele ukujongo olulungileyo kulungile okanye olululugwetyelweyo oluMelika."

Ukuqonda le ncam yembali kubalulekile kuba indlela yokudibanisa ichaphazela indlela amazwe amele abaphathe ngayo abemi. Ngaphandle kokungeniswa, amatyala angawaphatha, ngokwengcamango, amalungelo ebridge urhulumente wesizwe angenakuwangenisa. Imfundiso ekhethayo isebenza njengenkqubo engundoqo yolawulo lwaseMelika, ukulinganisa ulawulo lwenkululeko yoluntu.

Utyekelo Lwangoku Kumahluko

Indlela yeNkundla ePhakamileyo yokuzibandakanya ngokukhethayo kwiminyaka yakutshanje ibonisa umthetho obhaliweyo othe waninzi kwaye wanikela ingqalelo engakumbi kwisithethe sembali. Inkundla yangoku, kunye nenkoliso yayo engaguqukiyo, ibonise ukukulungela ukwandisa ulwandiso kwiindawo ezithile ngeli xesha igxininisa imiqathango esekelwe kwintsingiselo yantlandlolo kunye noqheliselo lwembali.

Enye yezona nkqubela zibalulekileyo yinkqubeko yeNkundla ejongene nolawulo lwesibini. McDonald v. Chicago [2010], iNkundla yathi uLawulo lwesibini loMphetho-Mpanzi-mda lunelungelo lokuzigcina nokuthwala izixhobo zolawulo lwayo ngokwayo kunye neZiko loorhulumente basekuhlaleni kunyaka weshumi elinesine loMphetho-mva. Esi sigqibo sitshintshile amashumi eminyaka ekwakhenketho ukuvumela oomasipala ukuba bamisele imilinganiselo engqongqo yokulawula imipu. Ngokukhawuleza, kunyakana, kunyaka olandelayo, urhulumente wesiZwe wesibini iRifle & Lamp; Priston Association v. Bruten[FLT] 202], iNkuchaza ukuba imiqathango yemipu yale yalebhiyo yelizwe, i-ophulo yesibini.

Enye indawo yokuququzelela ukuququzelelwa kwemiqathango ibandakanya iSendppoument’s Readsidence Beefs Clause. Timbs v. Indiana [2011], iNkundla ngamxhelo mnye yathi ukuvalwa kwemali eninzi efunekayo kusebenza kumazwe, ukuphawula okokuqala kweNkundla iquka iBhili yamaLungelo kwinkulungwane engamashumi amabini anesithathu. Ityala lalibandakanya ukulahlwa kweLizwe i-Rover SuV ngokuphindwe kane ukulunga kweziyobisi zabamangalelwayo, kwaye iNkundla yafunyanwa ingulo ingumthetho echasanayo engundoqo.

Ukugxininisa Kwizinto Ezingathethiyo

Amalungelo obumfihlo ahlala eluncedo ngokukhethekileyo ekukhetheni. Nangona iMbetho yoHlaziyo ye 14th itolike itolikwa ka-194's Programme Claus [i-FLT:3] [iiNkqutyana] engundoqo — ngokuphawulekayo kwityala Griswold v.Connectic[[ [iiiiiiqela lamabhinqa] [[FLT]) [202] ne[FLT] Rot] v. [22] [iiNkqulumo] i-Rodebs [[[[FLT] v] ingu-Rogno] iguqula umhlaba ngokuphawulekayo. Ngexesha elinjalo iNkunye iNkungakhangeli, iNkuvo ibambe ukuba uMgaqo-siseko wezonga ekubuyeni kwetyala, ithetha ngetyala elikunene.

Kummandla wenkululeko yokuthetha, iNkundla iqhubeke icombulula imida yokuKhuthazwa koMgaqo-nkqubo wokuqala. Iityala ezibandakanya ulawulo lwentlalo-ntle yoluntu, inkxaso-mali, kunye nentetho echaphazelekayo ziye zavavanya imida yamandla karhulumente. Packham v. Umntla Carolina[ [2017]], iNkundla yagawula umthetho wephondo othintela abaphuli-mthetho ababhaliswe ngokwesini abangekho mthethweni ekufikeleleni kwiqonga-ndaba, ibambe ukuba umthetho uxanduva uthwele amalungelo okuthetha ngenkululeko kumanani anamhlanje. Ngokufanayo, [[FLT.2] Mahan . [FLLD] [201], [201], iNkulawulo oluthe ngqo lwezikolo oluphakathi kwezikhululo-onke, ulawulo lwezi, ulawulo lwezikolo olungenawongalwazi oluphambili lokulawula ukulawula intetho yabafundi, intetho yesikolo yabafundi ngaphandle kwezifundo.

Kude kwamanani ukhuseleko loMphetho-zinyo olukwindawo entsha yokudibanisa. Ngexesha iNkundla yeSine ikhusela ukuphengululwa nokuxhuzula okungekho ngqiqweni, iNkundla isoloko izama ukusebenzisa le migaqo ukutshintsha ubugcisa ngokukhawuleza. Amakharente v. Le sigqibo se-United States [2088], iNkundla yamangqina ukuba urhulumente ufuna isiqinisekiso sokufumana ulwazi lwembali lweseli-aselthi, iqonda ukuba abantu banokulindela imfihlo elungeleleneyo kwintshukumo zabo zomzimba ngexesha elidluleyo. Le ngxelo ibonisa ukuba uGciso-Gqikelelo lwesine luza kuhambelana nobugcisa obutsha, kodwa ihlala ingaqondangaqondani nako ukufikelela kwezinye iindlela zolwazi, ezo ze-me-metermetermeter, ulwazi lwe-metermeter.

Uphuhliso Oluxelwe kwangaphambili

Ukujonga phambili, iingcinga eziliqela ezingundoqo zisenokubumba ikamva lokuququzelela. Imidlalo ephakathi kophuhliso lobugcisa, imigaqo engqubanayo nenkcubeko yentlalo, kunye nenkcazo yokugweba iza kugqiba ukuba ngawaphi amalungelo afumana ukhuseleko lomgangatho opheleleyo wombuso nendlela ezikhuselwa ngayo ezinyanzeliswe ngayo.

Ukwanda Kwamalungelo

Enye yezona ndawo zilindelweyo zolwandiso lubandakanya ukhuseleko lolwazi lweziqu zamanani. Njengoko ubukrelekrele obungeyomdla, ubuchule bokuqwalasela ubuso, kunye nobugcisa bokuhlola obusasazekileyo busiya buxhaphaka, iNkundla ingacelwa ukuba iqonde imilinganiselo emitsha yokuHlaziya kweyesine equka ukuqulunqwa okucacileyo okuthetha ngokulula ngesigqibo somthetho-algorith kunye nokufikelela korhulumente kugcino-lwazi lwabucala. Abaphengululi bezomthetho baye baphikisa into yokuba ingcamango yokwenziwa komgaqo wesinyibilikisi-jikelezo sesine — evuma ukuba ububanzi bomzikelo womntu ngamnye wemipulgoqo wogcino-lwazi — ingakhokelela ekukhuselweni okubanzi ekuphathweni okungenagunya likarhulumente.

Kukwakho ukuqiqa okuthi iNkundla ibandakanya iinkalo zoMmiselo Wokuqala woLawulo luka-Claus ngeendlela ezintsha, ingakumbi malunga nemali exhaswa ngurhulumente yamaziko onqulo. i-Lutherian Church v. Comer (2017]) kunye [FLT]] ne-Espinoza ne-Montanal Servey ye-Invector ] [2020], iNkundla yathiwa isithi ayinakuyishiya imibutho yonqulo eluncedo jikelele kwiinkqubo ezikhoyo ngenxa nje yemeko yonqulo. Ezi zicebisa ukuba kuququzelo oluphezulu lwamalungelo omsebenzi, olufuna ukuphatha iinkonzo kunye nemisebenzi yezonqulo.

Enye indawo enokwenzeka yolwando lilungelo lokuhamba, ekukudala iNkundla ilazi ukuba lilungelo elisisiseko elikhuselwe ngamaLungelo oMphetho-Mgaqo weshumi elinesine okanye ama-Immuniti Claus. Ngoxa iNkundla iye yahlalutya uhambo lwezomthetho ngokwesithethe phantsi kwe-Ukhuselo lwe-Celt ne-"Guard Proces Clausskes, abanye abagwebi baye babonakalisa umdla wokuvuselela amalungelo okanye ii-Immunitis Claus ekwiliye njengomthombo ocacileyo wamalungelo adityanisiweyo. Saenz v. Roe, iNkuNkundla ixhomekeke kumalungelo okanye ii-Immage Claus ukubetha inzuzo ezifunekayo kumthetho waseCalifornia, kwaye oku kunokwenziwa oku kumanye amalungelo angalinganiyo.

Ekugqibeleni, ilungelo lemfundo, nangona lingakhankanywa ngokucacileyo kumGaqo-siseko, lingabona iingxoxo ezitsha eziqukiweyo. San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez [1773], iNkundla yakholelwa ukuba imfundo ayilolungelo elisisiseko phantsi komGaqo-siseko wezwelonke, kodwa iguqula iimeko zentlalo kunye nomgangatho wemfundo okhulayo kumgangatho wemfundo ophezulu ngaphaya kwamazwe athile — isenokukhawuleza ihlaziywe ukuba imfundo esisiseko isekelwe kwingcamango yenkululeko ecwangcisiweyo.

Imiqobo Nocelomngeni

Ngaphandle kolwandiso olunokwenzeka, ikamva lokuququzelela okukhethiweyo alinamiqathango neengxaki ezibalulekileyo. Ukugxininisa kweNkundla yangoku kukuqala nokubhalwa kombhalo kunganyanzela ukukhula kwemfundiso. IJaji uThomas, ngokukodwa, iphikisa ngelithi iNkundla mayishenxise kwindlela efunekayo yokuhlalutya okuncinci kwaye endaweni yoko isekelwe kwisiseko samalungelo omntu okanye kwi-Immunitunies Claus, akholelwa ukuba ngokuthembeka ngakumbi intsingiselo yokuqala ye-InPrandmentation. Ngelixa le ndlela inokuthi igcine amalungelo athile afakiweyo, ikwanokwamisela ulwando lwamalungelo amatsha angahlali kakuhle akwimbali angenayo.

Olunye ucelomngeni olukhulu lubandakanya ukwanda kokuququzelelwa kwenkqubo yoqinisekiso yeNkundla ePhakamileyo kunye nenkqubo yokugweba ebanzi. Njengoko ulungelelwaniso lwezimvo lokutshintsha kweNkundla, umgangatho wokumisa ukuba ngawaphi amalungelo "esiseko" anokuba nokhuphiswano olungakumbi. Amanye amazwe aye alwa ngokukhutheleyo ukulwa nokuququzelela ulawulo lwamagunya orhulumente, aphikisana ngokubuyela kwimithetho yorhulumente edibeneyo apho amazwe agcina ulawulo oluphezulu ukuchaza umlinganiselo wamalungelo omntu ngamnye kwimidalo yawo. Unyuko lomgaqo-siseko wesizwe umelo lunye umqondiso walenza kube nokukhula kwamalungelo awo phantsi komgaqo-siseko olawulayo kwiindawo apho umgaqo-siseko unikela ukhuseleko olungephi.

Kukwakho nocelomngeni olusebenzisekayo lokunyanzelisa. Kwanaxa amalungelo enziwe ngokusemthethweni, ukuqinisekisa ukuthobela kukarhulumente kufuna ukuhlaziywa okuqhubekayo, ukuphunyezwa komthetho, kunye nokusetyenziswa kolawulo lukawonke-wonke. Imfundiso yokuququzelelwa kolwazi inamandla kuphela njengamayeza akhoyo ukunyanzelisa. Kwiminyaka yakutshanje, iNkundla iye yazinciphisa iindlela ezithile zokunyanzelisa, ezifana nokufaneleka kokhuseleko lwamagosa amapolisa kunye nemiqathango yamalungelo oluntu. Ukuba ezi zimo ziyaqhubeka, ukuqulungela kusenokuba zizinto ezifuziselayo kunezo ezincinci ezikhoyo, ngokubotshelelwa ngemilinganiselo yorhulumente kodwa ngokubhekiselele kulwaphulo-mthetho okuncinane okuluncedo.

Ubunzima Bemfundo Nomthetho

Imfundiso ejikelezayo yokubandakanya okukhethiweyo inentsingiselo enzulu kwimfundo engokwasemthethweni, kubuchule bomgaqo-siseko, nokuqhelisela umthetho. Abafundi bomthetho nabafundisi-mthetho kufuneka babambene kungekuphela nje nenkqubela-phambili yembali kodwa kwaneenguqu zayo eziqhubekayo ekuphenduleni iinguqulelo zobugcisa, zentlalo, nezezobupolitika.

Kwizifundo zesikolo somthetho, ukuququzelela imigaqo-nkqubo esesikweni kuye kwafundiswa njengemfundiso elungisiweyo ngokwesithethe — inkqubo yembali eyafikelela kwincopho yomthetho wenkulungwane yamashumi amabini ngokufakwa kweSibeko samaLungelo. Noko ke, ukuhlaseleka kwakutshanje kweemeko ezibandakanya amatyala kunye nendlela yokusebenza yeNkundla kuthetha ukuba abafundisi-lwazi mababonise imfundiso njengephilileyo, ingingqi ekhuphiswano yomthetho-siseko. Iizifundo zomthetho womgaqo-siseko, inkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho, kunye nolawulo lorhulumente kufuneka zigxininise iingxoxo zentetho ezikhoyo phantsi kwento ekhoyo, kuquka ukuxabana phakathi kobukho bantlalo-siseko kunye nolawulo oluphilayo, indima yamalungelo okanye u-Immunis Claus, kunye nolwalamano phakathi kwenkqubo ephantsi kwenkqubo efunekayo.

Kubongiswa abasemthethweni, ingakumbi abo basebenza kumalungelo asekuhlaleni, ukhuseleko lolwaphulo-mthetho, okanye urhulumente kunye norhulumente wasekuhlaleni, ukuqonda okunzulu kokubandakanya okukhethiweyo kubalulekile ekusebenziseni impumelelo yokusebenzisa i-odoli. AbaLawysi abachaza amatyala abandakanya isenzo sikarhulumente kufuneka balungiselele ukuphikisa ukuba ilungelo elithile liqukiwe kwaye ngoko libophelele kumaphondo, okanye ngokuchasene nokokuba ilungelo alifakwanga kwaye lihlala liphantsi kolawulo lombuso. Ukwanda okunempumelelo kwemeko ezinxulumene nobugcisa kuthetha ukuba oogqirha bamele baqonde indlela abaza kusebenzisa ngayo ubugcisa bokuvelisa ikhompyutha, ukusuka ekuphandweni ngentlalo, okanye ekuphathweni ngobuchule obungeyo.

Ngaphandle komsebenzi osemthethweni, ikamva lokukhetha lineziphumo ezibanzi zezemfundo. Abahlali abaqonda umlinganiselo wamalungelo abo omgaqo-siseko — yaye liliphi iqondo likarhulumente elimele ukukhusela loo malungelo — baxhotyiselwe bhetele ukuxhasa nokuthatha inxaxheba ngokunentsingiselo kulawulo lwedemokhrasi. Amanyathelo emfundo ajolise ekuphuculeni ulwazi lwezikolo eziphezulu, ukususela kwiinkqubo zemfundo zoluntu ukuya kumaziko emfundo abantu abadala, kufuneka aquke iingcaciso ezicacileyo ngendlela imisebenzi ekhethayo nesizathu sokuba ibaluleke kubomi bemihla ngemihla.

Kumgangatho wenkqubo, iziwiso-mthetho kunye neejaji zikarhulumente kufuneka zijonge inkqubela-phambili ekuququzeleleni inkqubela-phambili kuphuhliso lwezigwebo zomthetho ukuqinisekisa ukuba imithetho yesizwe ihambisana nemigangatho karhulumente ejikelezayo. Ukusilela ukwenza oko kungaphumela kwilixa elibizayo kunye nokungagunyaziswa kwemithetho-mthetho. Ngokuchasene noko, amatheko okunqwenela ukwandisa ukhuseleko ngaphaya komngcipheko wesizwe kusenokufumana amathuba okukhula kwentsingiselo yemithetho-siseko. Ukudlala phakathi komthetho karhulumente kunye nomgaqo-siseko kudala umthetho worhulumente onamandla apho amagunya asebenza njengeeplatafekta zedekhrasi zedekhrasi, ukuvavanya ukufikelela okutsha kokukhusela amalungelo okunokuthi kamva kuphembele utoliko olusemthethweni.

Isiphelo

Ikamva lokukhetha izithembiso ezizizo eziza kuba ngumphumo obalulekileyo njengexesha lazo elidluleyo. Ukusuka kwimvelaphi yayo ekuqaleni kwenkulungwane yamashumi amabini ukuya kwindima yayo yangoku ekulolongeni ubumfihlelo bamanani, amalungelo emipu, kunye nokuthetha ngokukhululekileyo, le mfundiso iseyinkqubo ebalulekileyo yokunyanzela ukhuseleko olusisiseko lomgaqo-siseko nxamnye norhulumente ukuba uphathwe kakubi. Zonke iingcamango kunye nezixelo ezichazwe kweli nqaku — kuquka ukwanda kwamalungelo obuqu, ingxoxo eqhubekayo ngenkqubo efunekayo engaphantsi kwento efunekayo, kunye neengxaki ezibangelwa kukusetyenziswa kwemithetho yezahlulelo kunye nokuchasa imo yendaleko yemfundiso ebalulekileyo.

Kubaphengululi, abafundi, kunye noogqirha, ukuhlala besazi ngale nkqubela akuyonto nje yemfundo. Kuyimfuneko ukuqhuba imo esemthethweni apho imida ephakathi kwegunya likarhulumente nelorhulumente isoloko idityaniswa kwakhona. Imfundiso ekhethayo iza kuqhubeka ilungisa amalungelo aphilayo emigaqo-siseko kumntu ngamnye waseMelika, igqibe ukuba inkululeko ekhutshwe kwiBhili yamaLungelo ayiqiniseki ngokwenene ukusuka elunxwemeni ukuya elunxwemeni. Njengoko sikhangela kwikamva, into enye iqinisekile: incoko ekhethayo ngeququzelo ikude kakhulu. Iya kulungiswa ngamatyala azayo phambi kweNkundla, iimpikiswano eziphuhliswa ngabameli, kunye nokuqonda okuthiwa kwazo kuxhomekeke ekunene kwicebo elisisiseko lenkululeko eMelika. Abo bafaka le mfundiso entle ngokunzulu ngempembelelo yayo.