Table of Contents
Izindululo zomGaqo-siseko zimela iinguqu ezisisiseko okanye ulwandiso olungundoqo kuxwebhu olulawula ilizwe, olusebenza njengeenkqubo ezibalulekileyo zokutshintsha imigaqo engokwasemthethweni ukuze kucaciswe imilinganiselo yoluntu, ukukhusela amalungelo omntu ngamnye, nokulungisa ukungalungisi kwenkqubo. Ezi zindululo zibonisa ingxoxo eqhubekayo phakathi kwemigaqo yokusekwa kwesizwe kunye neemfuno ezitshintshayo zabemi bayo. Kuyo yonke imbali, ukupheliswa kwemithetho-siseko kuphumeze indima ebalulekileyo ekwandiseni idemokhrasi, ukukhusela inkululeko yamakhaya, nokuqinisekisa ukhuseleko olulinganayo phantsi komthetho. Olu khokelo luhlola olona mgaqo-siseko ubalulekileyo, ngokugxininisa kugxininisa kumGaqo-siseko weUnited States, ngoxa luhlola nokuncinwa komnye obalulekileyo kwamanye amazwe ehlabathini.
Ukuqonda IziHlaliso zoMgaqo-siseko
Ulungiso lomgaqo-siseko luyinkqubo yokulungisa umgaqo-siseko welizwe, efuna inkqubo engqongqo yokuqinisekisa ukuvumelana okubanzi. Inkqubo yokulungisa yenzelwe ukubetha ulungelelwano phakathi kokuzingxala kokutshintsha okuzingisileyo nokungaguquguquki. Oku kunzima kwemposiso ekulungiseni imithetho kuqinisekisa ukuba utshintsho ngenkxaso esasazekileyo luba yinxalenye yomthetho ongundoqo.
Imbali yokulungisa umGaqo-siseko yimbali yokwandisa amalungelo nedemokhrasi, eneshumi elinesixhenxe lama-77 agunyazisiweyo ekugcinweni okanye ekuvunyweni kwamalungelo omntu ngamnye, kuquka amalungelo ovotelwa. Utshintsho lwenkqubo lusebenza njengesiqinisekiso sobume bomgaqo-siseko, ukuvumela ibutho ukuba lilungise ukungalungisi kokungekho sikweni kwangaphambili lize liziqhelanise neengxaki zalo ezintsha ngaphandle kokulahla imigaqo yesiseko.
Inkqubo Yokulungiswa Kwemijelo EUnited States
Ukulungisa kungacetyiswa kuthunyelwe kumazwe ukuze kukhutshwe izixa ezibini ezithathu ngobuninzi bazo zombini kwiNdlu yeNdlu yeeNdlu zooMongameli, okanye ngendibano yesizwe ebizwe ebizwa yiBhunga ekusetyenzweni kwemithetho yowiso-mthetho yamaphondo amabini anesithathu. Ukuba yinxalenye yomGaqo-siseko, ukulungiswa kufuneka kuqinisekiswe ngamaphondo amathathu anesine (38595).
Kuthatha ixesha elide kwaye kunyuswa umlinganiselo omkhulu wesivumelwano soluntu ukuze kulungiswe imigaqo-siseko eyamkelekileyo. Ekubeni umGaqo-siseko wagunyaziswa ngowe-1789, amakhulu amawaka eendleko aye aziswa ukuzama ukuyilungisa, kodwa zingama-77 kuphela iinguquko eziye zavunywa kwi-U.S., kungama-33 adluliselwe yiBhunga aza athunyelwa kumaphondo.
IBhili yamaLungelo: IsiHlayiso sokuqala seMerika esilishumi
Izilungiso zokuqala ezilishumi zamkelwa zaza zathunyelwa kumazwe yiBhunga njengeqela, yaye kamva zavunywa kunye; ezi zidityanisiwe njengeBhili yamaLungelo. Ezilishumi leenguquko ezicetyisiweyo ezili-12 zavunywa ziindlu zowiso-mthetho zikarhulumente ezintathu-4 ngoDisemba 15, 1791, kwaye zibumba iziphelo zokuqala ezili-10 zomGaqo-siseko, okanye i-U.S.
Ukuze akhusele inkxaso yomGaqo-siseko phakathi kweAnti-Federalist, eyayisoyika ukuba yanika urhulumente wesizwe amandla amakhulu kakhulu xa kwakunyanzeleka urhulumente ngamnye, uJames Madison wavuma ukwenza iBhili yamaLungelo ngexesha lentlanganiso yokuqala yeBhunga. Ezi zindululo zasekwa zizikhuseli ezisisiseko eziye zaba ziziseko zedemokhrasi yaseMerika kwaye zaphembelela inkqubela-mGaqo-siseko ehlabathini lonke.
UMthetho Wokuqala Ohlaziyiweyo: Isiseko Sokuthetha
UMthetho Wokuqala Wokwenziwa kweMpanzi - mveliso mhlawumbi uyeyona nkqubo idumileyo kumthetho-siseko waseMerika, ikhusela inkululeko esisiseko efunekayo kwibutho labantu elilawulwa ngedemokhrasi. Utshintsho luqinisekisa inkululeko yonqulo, yokuthetha, yokushicilela, yokuhlanganisana neyokucela, idala isiseko esiqinileyo sokuthetha nokungavumelani.
Oku kulungiswa kuthintela iNgqungquthela ekumiseleni unqulo olusemthethweni okanye ekuthinteleni ukusetyenziswa kwenkululeko yonqulo, ukuqinisekisa inkululeko yonqulo kuwo onke amaMerika. Ukuthetha ngokukhululekileyo nokukhuselwa koomatshini kubangele ukuba kubekho ingxoxo enkulu kawonke-wonke, ukungavisisani kwezobupolitika okukhuselweyo, kwaye kuvumele iintatheli ukuba zisebenze njengeegophe elijonge igunya likarhulumente. Amalungelo okuhlanganisana ngoxolo nokucela urhulumente ukuba alungise izityholo kunika abemi bombutho kunye nommeli weenguqu.
UMthetho Wokuqala Ohlaziyiweyo ubukwinqanaba lamatyala amaninzi eNkundla Ephakamileyo athetha ngayo yonke into ukususela ekutshiseni iflegi nakuthetha ngentiyo ukuya kumgaqo wezemali ne-intanethi.
Uhlaziyo Lwesibini: Unelungelo lokuthwala izixhobo
IsiHlanzi sesibini sikhusela ilungelo lokugcina nokuphatha iingalo, ilungiselelo eliye ladala impikiswano ephawulekayo malunga nobungakanani bazo kunye nokusebenza kwazo. Ekuqaleni ezaziqondwa ngokwemeko yamajoni karhulumente, iinkcazelo zale mihla ziye zandisa amalungelo omntu ngamnye okuba nemipu ngexa evumela imimiselo ethile. Le ngxoxo ihlala ingomnye wezona zilwayo kwezobupolitika zanamhlanje zaseMelika, kunye neengxoxo eziqhubekayo zokulungelelanisa ukhuseleko lukawonke wonke nenkululeko yomntu ngamnye.
UMthetho Wesithathu Ohlaziyiweyo: Ukuhlanganiswa Kwamajoni
Njengendlela yokusabela echasene nemithetho yangaphambili evumela amajoni aseBritani ukuba akhusele amakhaya abo bahlala ethanga nanini na xa efuna, uMphengululo wesithathu awubonakali usebenza kakhulu namhlanje, njengoko urhulumente wesizwe engenakucela abemi bobucala kumajoni ahlala endlwini. INkundla Ephakamileyo ayizange igqibe ngetyala elisekelwe kwiSizinziso seSithathu soMyezo, kodwa iye yabhekisela kwinkuselo yayo kwiimeko ezikufutshane nempahla namalungelo obuqu.
Uhlaziyo Lwesine: Ukukhusela Kuphando Olungekho ngqiqweni
Isiqinisekiso seSichibiyelo sesine sokuba "ilungelo labantu lokunqabiseka kubantu babo, izindlu, amaphepha kunye neziphumo, ngokuchasene nophando olungekho ngqiqweni kunye nokuxhuzula" sakhula ngqo kumava e-Melika abekwe kumathanga ngaphambi kwemfazwe yendaleko, xa amagunya aseBritane enza izicelo jikelele, ezaziyimiyalelo yenkundla eyayivumela amagosa karhulumente ukuba akhangele ngaphandle kwemiqathango.
Oku kulungiswa kufuna ukugcinwa komthetho ukuze kufumane isiqinisekiso esisekelwe kwisizathu esilindelekileyo sophando okanye ukuxhuzula, ukukhusela abemi ekungeneleni korhulumente okungaxhomekekanga. Kule mihla, iGadatempliment jurisprudency yesine ikhule ukuya kuthetha ngobugcisa obutsha, kuquka ukuchonga ngeminxeba, iGPS, ukuphengulula icell phone, kunye nokuhlola kwemichiza, ukuphakamisa imibuzo entsonkothileyo malunga nemfihlo kwisizukulwana samanani.
Okwesihlanu Kuhlaziywa KweziHlabathi Ezisibhozo: Okusesikweni Kwezaphuli - mthetho Kuyakhusela
IsiHlanzi soHlahlulo sesihlanu silungiselela ukukhusela abantu abatyholwa ngolwaphulo-mthetho, kuquka ilungelo lokuzikhusela kwingozi ephindwe kabini, kunye nesiqinisekiso sokuba akukho mntu uya kuphulukana nobomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo yomthetho. Ibinzana elidumileyo "ukubongoza owesihlanu" libhekisela ekulaleni ukungqinelana naye.
ISithandathu IsiHlanziso siqinisekisa ilungelo lokuchotshelwa kwetyala ngokukhawuleza nakuwonke wonke, inkundla yabachopheli-tyala engakhethi buso, ilungelo lokuxelelwa ngezityholo, ilungelo lokuthetha namangqina, nelungelo lokunikwa icebiso elingokwasemthethweni.
UHlaziyo lweSebethi lulondoloza ilungelo lokuvavanywa kwamatyala abagwebi, ngoxa uMphetho-mthetho Wesi - 8, uvala ibheyile eninzi, ukuhlawuliswa ngokugqithiseleyo, nesohlwayo esinenkohlakalo nesingaqhelekanga. Zizonke ezi zindululo zidala ilungiselelo elibanzi lokukhusela abantu kwinkqubo yokusesikweni.
IziHlanziso Zesi - 1000 Nezeshumi: Amalungelo Namandla Agciniweyo
ISiHlazo-Mgaqo-nkqubo se-Ninth sicacisa ukuba uludwe lwamalungelo athile kumGaqo-siseko alubaleli ukuba abantu abanawo amanye amalungelo asisiseko adweliswe ngokucacileyo. Oku kulungiswa kucatshulwe kwiimeko ezibandakanya amalungelo obuqu kunye namanye amalungelo angenazintlukwano.
Ngokutsho koMphetho weshumi, amandla karhulumente karhulumente alinganiselwe kuphela kwabo banikwe wona ngokucacileyo ngumGaqo-siseko, ngoxa onke amanye amagunya egcinelwe oorhulumente okanye abantu, nangona impikiswano iqhubekekile ukuba ngawaphi amagunya awela kulo didi lokugqibela, kwaye kumele kubekwe imida kumandla akhulayo karhulumente worhulumente worhulumente worhulumente.
Uhlaziyo lohlaziyo: UTyelelo lwesibini lwaseMelika
Izilungiso ze-13, 14th, kunye neze-15 ziqhubana nobukhoboka, ukhuseleko olulinganayo namalungelo athile omgaqo-siseko; zidityanisiwe, zibizwa ngokuba zi-Reconstruction Amediment. Ixesha lokubuyiselwa kwakhona ukususela ngo1865 ukuya ngo1870 lasinika iinguqu ezintathu ezithi abaphengululi abaninzi bazibiza ngokuba "zizibonelelo zesizwe sethu". Ezi zizinziso ezithi ngokusisiseko ziguqule umthetho we-mgaqo-siseko waseMelika kunye nebutho labantu emva kwemfazwe ye-Politiki.
Uhlaziyo Lwe - 13: Ukupheliswa Kobukhoboka
ISichibiyelo se-13 mhlawumbi sesona silungiso sibalulekileyo kwimbali yaseMelika, savunywa ngo1865 njengesokuqala sesithathu "Izilungiso zokwamkelwa ngoko nangoko emva kwemfazwe yamakhaya, kwaye ngoxa ukubuyiselwa kunqabile ukuchazwa ziinkundla, iziphumo zayo kwibutho lamaMelika azinakuchazwa ngokugqithileyo.
Oku kupheliswa kwaphelisa ubukhoboka nokukhotyokiswa ngokungeyomfuneko kulo lonke elaseUnited States, ngaphandle kokuba oko kusisohlwayo ngenxa yolwaphulo-mthetho. Olu tshintsho lukhulu lwaphelisa isiko elalikho ukususela kumaxesha obukolo kwaye lakhuselwa ngumGaqo-siseko wokuqala. IsiHlanziso seshumi elinesithathu saphawula ukutshintshwa okungundoqo kwimilinganiselo yamaMerika saza sabeka isiseko sokhuseleko lwamalungelo abantu.
Ulungiso lomthetho ludlulela ngaphaya kobukhoboka obuqhelekileyo bokubandakanya ezinye iintlobo zobukhoboka obungavumelekanga, kwaye kusenendima kwiimeko zanamhlanje ezibandakanya ukurhwebelana kwabantu, ukunyanzeliswa kwemisebenzi, kunye nokusetyenziswa kwemisebenzi yasentolongweni.
Uhlaziyo Lweshumi Elinane: Ukhuseleko olulinganayo nenkqubo elindelekileyo
ISichibiyelo seshumi elinesine sadluliselwa yiKhonklane ngoJuni 13, 1866, yaza yagunyaziswa ngoJulayi 9, 1868. Oku kulungiswa kuphakathi kowona mqathango ubalulekileyo nowenziwe rhoqo kumGaqo-siseko, ngokusisiseko kuguqula ulwalamano phakathi korhulumente wengingqi, oorhulumente belizwe, kunye nabemi ngabanye.
Umgangatho kaNondyebo
Inguquko iqala ngokufumanisa ukuba bonke abantu abazalwe okanye abadaliweyo eUnited States ngabemi baseUnited States nakwilizwe abahlala kulo. Eli binzana lobumi lasibhukuqa isigqibo esinetyala uDred Scott waza wamisela ubuzibulo njengomgaqo-siseko, eqinisekisa ukuba ubumi abunakukhanyelwa ngenxa yohlanga.
Ukukhusela u-Claus
ISikhuseli esilinganayo sikaClaus silungiselelo elibalulekileyo elifumaneka kuMgaqo-siseko weshumi elinesine, othi akukho rhulumente oza kumkhanyela namnye umntu okwigunya lakhe "ukhuseleko olulinganayo lwemithetho". Eli binzana lavela njengempendulo kukwahluka okuqhubekekisiweyo bubukhoboka nocalucalulo, ingakumbi emva kweMfazwe yamakhaya.
Iphakanyisiwe njengoko yayisenjalo emva kwemfazwe yamakhaya ngo1868, kukho amathandabuzo oko i-Livile Protection Claus yayicetyiswa ukukwenza: yima amajelo okungachaphazeli nxamnye nabamnyama, kodwa umbhalo kaClaus ubekwe mde kwaye ufikele kubude benjongo yawo yantlandlo. Awona mabinzana asetyenziswayo nasoloko ehlaziywa ekulungiseni imigaqo, abonisa ukulingana kwemiqathango ebanzi, kuquka iBrown v. Board of Education (racyrial rever), Roe v. Bush (a Rere). Rere (unyuko), v. Reedgen (der) neYunivesithi yeKra.
INkundla Ephakamileyo iye yachaza ngokwembali eli binzana ukuxubusha iindlela ezahlukeneyo zocalulo, okokuqala igxininisa kwimibandela yobuhlanga kodwa kamva yandisa umlinganiselo wayo wokuquka ubufanasini kunye nezinye iinkalo. I-Compamement Protection Claus iye yaba sisiseko somGaqo-siseko semithetho nezenzo zokucelw'ityala ezilucelomngeni kwiimeko ezininzi, ukususela kwimfundo nasemsebenzini ukuya kuchonga amalungelo omtshato kunye nokulingana.
Ilindelekile Claus
ISindululo soMgqibelo seshumi elinesine sika-Screate Procession Claus salela ukuba kunganqandwa nabani na wobomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo yomthetho. Eli lungiselelo liye lachazwa ukuba liquke inkoliso yeSikolo samaLungelo okukhuselwa koorhulumente, imfundiso eyaziwa ngokuba kukuququzelelwa. Ngale nkqubo, amalungelo asisiseko aye abeka iliso kurhulumente ngoku kuphela kwinyathelo likarhulumente ngoku.
I-System Claus Claus ikwatolikwa ukukhusela amalungelo athile asisiseko angakhankanywanga ngokucacileyo kumGaqo-siseko, kuquka amalungelo okuzimela, ilungelo lokutshata, namalungelo obuzali. Le mfundiso ifanelekileyo ingekadibaniswa kodwa iye yasetyenziswa ekukhuliseni inkululeko yomntu ngamnye.
UMthetho Wokwenziwa Kwamalungelo: Ukunikela Ilungelo Lokunceda
Ulungiso lokuqala lokuguqula imfuno yabavoti yaba yi-15th Communition, eyagunyaziswa ngo-1870, iminyaka emihlanu emva kokuphela kwemfazwe yabemi, eyalela nawuphi na urhulumente ukuba angamkhanyeli uvoti nabani na "ngetyala lohlanga, umbala, okanye imeko yangaphambili yobukhoboka". Noko ke, ukubuyiselwa komqathango akuzange kunyanzeliswe de emva kokudluliswa koMthetho wamaLungelo ka-1965, kwiminyaka engama-95 kamva, owaziswa kwiBresetry emva kwezikhululo ze-thetho zikamabonwakude kwasasaza umgangatho ocacileyo we "Blody Sundayso," xa abahambi bamalungelo okuvota abaqhutyeli base-Rhel bacinywa ngogonyamelo ngu-Alaba baphathi boburhulumente.
Phezu kwalo nje ulungiso lolwimi olucacileyo, amazwe aseMazantsi asebenzisa iindlela ezahlukeneyo zokudibanisa abavoti Black, kuquka iimvavanyo zovavanyo lokubhalisa, iirhafu zovolo, amabinzana katatomkhulu, kunye noloyikiso olucacileyo. Umsantsa phakathi kwesithembiso sotshintsho kunye nokunyanzeliswa kwalo ubonisa umzabalazo oqhubekayo wamalungelo okuvota nokubaluleka kokuzinzisa zombini umgaqo-siseko kunye neenkqubo zokuzigcina zikho.
Ukuhlaziywa Kwexesha Okuqhubekayo: Utshintsho Lwedemokhrasi
Ekuqaleni kwenkulungwane yamashumi amabini kwabakho utshintsho oluninzi olwathi lwandisa inxaxheba kwidemokhrasi lwaza lwaphuculwa nezakhiwo zikarhulumente ukuze lubancede bafune ukusabela ngakumbi kubemi.
Uhlaziyo Lweshumi Nesithandathu: Irhafu Yemali Ehlawulwayo
Ukudluliswa kwetyala leSinyuso se-16 ngo-1913 kwanika urhulumente amandla okuqokelela irhafu yengeniso, utshintsho olwawuguqula ngokunempumelelo umthetho ochasene no "mrhafu ongangqalanga" oqukiwe kwiGatya I lomGaqo-siseko. Inkcaso yoMgaqo-siseko we-16 yayiyi-1894. Ityala leNkundla ePhakamileyo, iPollock v. Abalimi's Loan & Trust Co., eyayikholelwa ukuba irhafuzo lwemali kwipropati yayilingana nerhafu ethenjiweyo kwaye ngaloo ndlela iyalelwe, kwaye xa le ngxaki yadluliselwa yiNgqungquthela ye-Rocedenti ngo-1909, yayineicede yabangela impikiswano, ithatha iminyaka elininzi nenguququluko lwezoqoqosho nemeko lwezopolitiki phambi kokuba igqitywe ngo19131313363.
Le ngxaki iguqulwe ngokusisiseko ngokwemali karhulumente wesizwe, yenza ukuba kubekho iinkqubo zentlalo zale mihla norhulumente okhutheleyo. Irhafu yengeniso yemali iye yaba ngumthombo oyintloko wengeniso karhulumente, ixhasa yonke into ukususela kukhuseleko lwesizwe ukuya kukhuseleko lwentlalo kunye neMedicare.
Ukuhlaziywa kweZimilo: Unyulo Oluthe ngqo lwabaGqinisi
ISichithi se-17 seSichibiyelo satshintsha inkqubo yonyulo yeNdlu yeeNdlu yeeNtlanganiso zase-U.S., inika abantu baseMelika − kunezindlu zowiso-mthetho zikarhulumente `ilungelo lokunyula abaququzeleli. Phambi kokuba le mithetho ilungiswe ngo1913, abaququzeleli banyulwa ziindlu zowiso-mthetho, nto leyo eyakhokelela ekubeni baqonde ukuba ukonakala kwezobupolitika kwelo lizwe kunye nombutho ukuvumela abemi ukuba bakhethe ngokuthe ngqo abaquququzeleli babo.
Le nguqu yamela ukuhlaziywa kolawulo-siseko okubalulekileyo korhulumente waseMelika, isenza ukuba abaququzeleli baphendule ngqo kubavoti kunokuba bamisele abamisi-mthetho. Olu tshintsho lwabonisa inkxalabo yeXesha ehambela phambili ngokunganyaniseki kwezobupolitika nomnqweno wokwenza urhulumente athabathe intsabelo engakumbi kukuthanda okuthandwayo.
IMithetho yeSizwe neyoLuntu e-20:
ISichibiyelo seshumi elinesibhozo, esagunyaziswa ngowe-1920, sakwalela ukwenziwa, ukuthengiswa, kunye nokuthuthwa kweziselo ezinxilisayo kulo lonke elaseUnited States. Oku kwamela incopho yemigudu yombutho yokuphelisa utywala obunxulumene neengxaki zentlalo.
Uhlaziyo lwama-20 lokuqala, olwavunywa ngo-1933, lwaphinda lwayiphelisa iNguqulo eBanzi yowe-1920, lwaphelisa imithetho karhulumente ekwalekwa utywala yaza yabuyela kumazwe anamandla okumisela eyawo imimiselo yotywala, kwaye lukuphela kwenguquko elungisa ngokungqalileyo enye inguquko. Ukungaphumeleli kweProjini kwabonisa imida yokusebenzisa iziphene zomgaqo-siseko ukulawula ukuziphatha kobuqu nokubaluleka kwenkxaso kawonke-wonke kwimiqathango yomgaqo-siseko.
Uhlaziyo Lweshumi elinesithoba: Ushenxiso lwamabhinqa
Ngexesha uHlaziyo lwe-199 lwagunyaziswayo ngowe-1920, uthintela iUnited States okanye nawuphi na urhulumente ukuba angakhanyeli okanye abeke imvume yokuvota nawuphi na ummi "ngesizathu sesini," amaphondo angama-30 kunye nentsimi enye yavumela amabhinqa ukuba avote kukhetho oluthile ubuncinane. Susan B. Anthony kunye nabanye abaxhasi bamabhinqa baphoxeka kakhulu emva kwemfazwe yamakhaya, xa iBhunga lakhupha ubufana kwiindidi ezazingenakusetyenziswa ukukhaba nelungelo lokuvota kuMpanziswa kweSinyuko se-15, kwaye kunye nomthetho owenziwe ngomGaqo-siseko waqinisekisa imigudu yabo kwiphondo, apho babekwazi ukwenza inkqubela ngokuthe ngcembe.
IsiHlanzi seSindululo seshumi elinesithoba samela uloyiso olukhulu lwemibutho yamabhinqa emva kwamashumi eminyaka ezenzo zobugqwesi, ukuqhankqalaza, kunye nokuqhatha. Noko ke, nasemva kokuqhaganyiswa koMgqino we-19, amabhinqa amaninzi anemibala ayephantsi kothothotho lweentlobo ezahlukahlukeneyo lokucinezela umvoti de kudlule uMthetho wamaLungelo wamaLungelo ka-1965, ubalaselisa indlela iintlobo ezininzi zocalucalucalulo ezinokudibana ngayo namalungelo okhetho.
IziHlaziyo Zale Mihla: Indaleko eqhubekayo yomGaqo-siseko
Ngoxa ukupheliswa komgaqo - siseko kuye kwathotha kakhulu kumashumi eminyaka akutshanje, kuye kwavunywa iinguqulelo eziliqela ezibalulekileyo ukususela kwiMfazwe Yehlabathi II, kuthethwa ngamalungelo okuvota, ukulandelelana komongameli norhulumente.
Uhlaziyo oluMatshi 20-
Ngo-1951, uHlaziyo oluMatshi oluMatshi 20 oluNgqongqozelelweyo luqinisekisa ukuba oomongameli bafanele banikwe imiqathango emibini ehlawulwayo eofisini. Olu nyuselo lwadluliselwa kuFranklin D. Roosevelt ukunyulwa kumagama amane, ukwaphula isithethe sexesha elifutshane esimiswe nguGeorge Washington. Utshintsho luqinisekisa ukujika rhoqo kolawulo oluphezulu kwaye luthintela ukunyuselwa kwamandla agqithisileyo kumntu omnye.
Amashumi amabini anesithathu IsiHlalisi: D.C.
ISichibiyelo esingamashumi amabini anesithathu, esagunyaziswa ngowe-1961, sanikwa abemi baseSithili saseColumbia ilungelo lokuvota kunyulo lomongameli ngokuvota abanyuli beSithili. Oku kupheliswa kwathetha ngenxenye ngetyala ledemokhrasi elijongene neD.C. Abahlali, nangona bengekalufumani umelo olupheleleyo lwengqungquthela.
Uhlaziyo lwamashumi amabini anesine: Ukupheliswa kwerhafu
Ngo-1964, uMmiselo wesiXhobo wama-24 wakwalela irhafu yonyulo kunyulo lwamagunya asekuhlaleni. Iirhafu ezirhafu zasetyenziswa kakhulu kumaphondo aseMazantsi ukudibanisa abavoti abaBlack kunye nabemi abangamahlwempu. Oku kulungiswa, kunye neVoting Rights Act ka-65, kwanceda ekuvoteleni imiqobo eyaqhubeka phezu kwayo nje iSiHlaziselo se-15.
Uhlaziyo lwama-20/5: Ukuphumelela koMongameli nokungafezeki
UMthetho-Mbetho wamashumi amabini anesihlanu, wagunyaziswa ngo-1967, wacaciswa iinkqubo zokulandelelana komongameli kunye neenkqubo ezimiselweyo zokuthetha nokukhubazeka komongameli. Utshintsho lunika isekela lomongameli ukwamkela igunya lomongameli ukuba umongameli akakwazi ukuphumeza imisebenzi yakhe, kwaye umisela iinkqubo zokuzalisa iinkonzo zobumongameli. Oku kulungiswa kuye kwacelwa izihlandlo eziliqela, kuquka xa oomongameli beye bafumana iinkqubo zonyango.
Uhlaziyo lwe-Amashumi amabini anesithandathu: Iminyaka yokuhlaziya ithotywe ukuya kwi-18
Iqiniswe ngo-1971 ngexesha lemfazwe yaseVietnam, uHlaziyo lwamashumi amabini anesithandathu lwehla kwixesha lokuvota ukusuka kuma-21 ukuya ku-18 konyulo. Intengiselwano yasabela kwiimpikiswano zokuba ukuba amanani aneminyaka eli-18 ubudala ngokwaneleyo ukuba anokufakwa umkhosi emfazweni, kufuneka ukuba akhule ngokwaneleyo ukuze avote. Oku kulungiswa kwamela enye yolwando olukhulu kakhulu lwabanyuli kwimbali yaseMelika.
Uhlaziyo lwama-20%:
Ngo-192, iminyaka engama-203 emva kokuba kucetyiwe, iGatya 2 lavunywa njengeSigqibo sama-27 soMgaqo-siseko. Oku kulungiswa kwemibutho kuthintela ukukhutshwa komrhumo wequmrhu ukuba unyulo olulandelayo lwabameli, ukuqinisekisa ukuba amalungu eBhunga akanakuvota ukuba afumane unyuko olukhawulezileyo. Ekuqaleni kwacetyiswa njengenxalenye yeBhili yamaLungelo ngo-179, oku kulungiswa kwaba nethuba elide lokukhutshwa komGaqo-siseko.
Uphawu lwetyala eliPhakamileyo lweNkundla ePhakamileyo elichaza iziHlaliso zoMgaqo-siseko
Izindululo zomGaqo-siseko zifumana intsingiselo ngokutolikwa kwenkundla ePhakamileyo, ingakumbi ngezigqibo zeNkundla Ephakamileyo ezisebenzisa imigaqo engekho ngqiqweni kumatyala aqinileyo. Ukuqonda la matyala aphawulekayo kubalulekile ekuqondeni indlela ezisebenza ngayo izilungiso.
Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo (1954)
Esi sigqibo sangqinelana neNkundla ePhakamileyo savakalisa ukuba ucalucalulo lobuhlanga kwizikolo zikawonke-wonke lwaphula umthetho iSikhuseli-mthetho se-14th Amendment, sibhukuqa imfundiso "yahlukeneyo kodwa iyalingana" eyasungulwa kwiPlesty v. Ferguson (1896). Brown Brown v. iBroad of Education yaba ngumxhasi wamalungelo abantu kwaye yabonakalisa amandla okucaciswa komgaqo-siseko ukuqhubela phambili utshintsho lwentlalo.
Miranda v. Arizona (1966)
Eli tyala lafunyaniswa ukuba amapolisa kufuneka axelele abarhanelwe ngamalungelo abo okuHlazisela iMpanzi weNhlanu neyeSithandathu phambi kokuncinwa kwegunya. Iziphumo "zilumkiso zeMiranda" ziye zaba luphawu oluqhelekileyo lwenkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho lwaseMelika, ukukhusela ilungelo nxamnye nokuzinyoba kwanelungelo lokucebisa.
Virginia (1967) enothando
INkundla Ephakamileyo yagatya imithetho ekwalela umtshato weentlanga ezahlukeneyo, isithi loo mithetho yaphula umthetho weSikhuseli Somtshato esilinganayo nowe - Active Procesme Claus we - 14th Amendment.
Intambo--ebroyidi (19973) kunye neDobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization (2022)
Roe v. Wade wavuma ilungelo elisemthethweni lokuqhomfa phantsi kwe-Aunt Procession Claus of the 14th Amendment, emisela isiseko sokulungelelanisa izilangazelelo zikarhulumente ngokuchasene nenkululeko yomntu ngamnye. Malunga neminyaka engamashumi amahlanu kamva, iDobbs . iJackson’s Health Organization i-Adys Roe yarhoxa, ikholelwa ukuba umGaqo-siseko awulimisi lungelo lokuqhomfa nokubuyisela lo mcimbi kwiindlu zowiso-mthetho. La matyala abonisa indlela ukucaciswa komgaqo-siseko okunokuguquka ngayo ngokuphawulekayo ngexesha elizayo.
Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)
ISindululo seMithetho yeshumi elinesine sifuna ukuba urhulumente avume umtshato phakathi kwabantu ababini besini esifanayo nokuba amkele umtshato phakathi kwabantu besini esinye xa umtshato wabo ugunyazisiwe ngokusemthethweni kwaye usenziwa ngaphandle korhulumente. Esi sigqibo savuma ukuba umtshato ongokwamatyala unelungelo elifanayo lomgaqo-siseko, okuphawula incopho ebalulekileyo kwiLGBTQ+ amalungelo.
IziHlaliso zoMgaqo-siseko Kwamanye Amazwe
Ngoxa umGaqo-siseko waseUnited States uye wasebenza njengomzekelo kumazwe amaninzi, amazwe ehlabathini lonke aye avelisa izithethe zawo zomGaqo-siseko neenguquko ezibalulekileyo ezibonisa imbali nemilinganiselo yawo ekhethekileyo.
EKhanada: UmThethi Wamalungelo Nenkululeko
Ngo-1982, iKhanada yawuxhasa umgaqo-siseko wayo yaza yongeza iSicatshulwa samaLungelo neNkululeko saseKhanada, esiqinisekisa inkululeko esisiseko, amalungelo edemokhrasi, amalungelo okuhamba, amalungelo asemthethweni, amalungelo okulingana, namalungelo olwimi. ISiqendu siye saba sesona siphambili kumthetho-siseko waseKhanada kwaye siye saphembelela ukukhuselwa kwamalungelo ehlabathi lonke. Icandelo 15 leSiqeshi-Cate, eliqinisekisa amalungelo okulingana, liye laba ngokubaluleka ngokukhethekileyo ekukhuseleni amaqela agwetyelwe phantsi.
UMzantsi Afrika: IziHlayisho zeNkcubeko zePfter-Apartheid
UMgaqo-siseko woMzantsi Afrika wowe-1996, owamkelwa emva kokuphela kocalucalulo, uquka enye yezona mali zihamba phambili zamalungelo ehlabathi. Umgaqo-siseko uyalwalela ucalucalulo olusekelwe kwizizathu ezininzi eziquka uhlanga, ubufanasini, isini, ukukhulelwa, imvelaphi yomtshato, imvelaphi yesizwe okanye yentlalo, ibala, imbonakalo yesondo, ubudala, ukukhubazeka, unqulo, inkolelo, inkcubeko, ulwimi, nokuzalwa. Inkundla yeMithendelelo-siseko itolike lawachaza la malungiselelo okukhuthaza okusesikweni nesidima soluntu.
EIndiya: IziHlayiso zamalungelo
UmGaqo-siseko waseIndiya uquka amalungelo asisiseko aye anwenwa kwaye acocwa ngokuphuculwa kweminye imibandela. UMthetho-nkqubo wama-42 wesi-1966 wongeza amagama athi "intlalo-ntle" kunye "nesigxina" kwintshayelelo, lo gama iinguqu ezahlukahlukeneyo zicombulule imigaqo equka ukubekwa kwemiqathango yamaqela asweleyo, amalungelo empahla, kunye nelungelo lokufundiswa. Uhlaziyo lwama-86 (2002) lwenza imfundo yaba nelungelo elisisiseko kubantwana abaneminyaka emi-6-14.
EJamani: IziHlayiso - mithetho Ezisisiseko
UMthetho oBanzi waseJamani (Grundesetz) uquka amalungelo asisiseko akhuselwe "yimiqathango" ekuthinteleni ukupheliswa okanye ukuhlaziywa kwawo. IziHlanzi ziye zathetha ngemibandela equka ukudibana kweYurophu, ukhuseleko lwemeko-bume, kunye nelungelo lokuzimela. Ukhuseleko olunamandla lomthetho woluntu luye lwaphembelela inkqubela-siseko kulo lonke elaseYurophu.
EJapan: UmGaqo-siseko woXanduva
Inqaku le 9 lomgaqo-siseko weJapan wasemva kwemfazwe yehlabathi II lilahla imfazwe kwaye liyayithintela ugcino lwemikhosi yemfazwe. Ngeli xesha lingalungiswanga ngokusesikweni, eli lungiselelo liye lacaciswa kwakhona ukuvuselelwa kwemikhosi ezimeleyo. Ingxoxo ngaphezulu kweGatya 9 elizinzileyo iyaqhubeka ibumba imikhosi yeJapan kunye nochazo lohlanga.
Imixholo Eqhelekileyo Kuhlaziyo LomGaqo-siseko Ehlabathini Lonke
Phezu kwazo nje iinkqubo ezahlukahlukeneyo zezobupolitika nezithethe ezingokwasemthethweni, utshintsho oluwenziwa ngumGaqo-siseko kuwo wonke amazwe ngokufuthi luthetha ngemibandela esisiseko efanayo:
Ukwanda Kwamalungelo Okudlulisela Imali
Utshintsho oluninzi lomgaqo-siseko luye lwanwenwa ngokuqhubekayo, lususa imiqathango esekelwe kwimpahla, kuhlanga, ubufana-bhinqa, nakubudala. Le meko ibonisa inkqubela-phambili yomhlaba wonke ukuya kwidemokhrasi eququzelekileyo kunye nokuvunywa kokuba ukuba nenxaxheba kwezobupolitika lilungelo elisisiseko.
Ukhuseleko lwamalungelo amancinane
Utshintsho loMgaqo-siseko lusoloko luthetha ngamalungelo abantu abambalwa, enoba achazwa ngokohlanga, ubuzwe, unqulo, ulwimi, okanye ezinye iimpawu.
Ukwahlukana Kwamandla Nokujongana Nolungelelwano
IziHlanziso zidla ngokuphucula ukusasazwa kwamandla phakathi kwamasebe karhulumente, zimisela okanye zomeleze iindlela zokuthintela ukuxinezeleka kwamandla nokuqinisekisa ukuphendula. Ezi zindululo ziyimfuneko ekulondolozeni idemokhrasi.
Amalungelo eNtlalo nezezoqoqosho
Umgaqo-siseko wale mihla uquka utshintsho olunxulumene namalungelo entlalo nawoqoqosho, afana namalungelo emfundo, ezonyango, izindlu, kunye nomsebenzi. La malungiselelo abonisa indlela yokuqonda oko oorhulumente bafanele bakuqonde ngayo abemi babo noko kufunekayo ukuze abantu bahlonelwe.
Ukhuseleko lokusingqongileyo
Ukuphuculwa komgaqo-siseko kuchaphazela ukukhuselwa nokulondolozwa kwemekobume, kuqonda ukubaluleka kokulondoloza ubuncwane bendalo kwizizukulwana ezizayo. Ezi ziphengululo zibonisa ukuqondwa okukhulayo kweengxaki zemeko-bume nendima yomthetho womgaqo-siseko ekuziphatheni.
Ikamva Lokuhlaziywa KomGaqo-siseko
Kuthathe iminyaka engaphezu kwamashumi amathathu ukususela ekutshintshweni komGaqo-siseko wethu wokugqibela eUnited States, kuphakanyiswa imibuzo yokuba inkqubo yokulungisa iyaqhubeka isebenza kusini na kwixesha lokwenziwa kwezobupolitika. Ubunzima bokufumana ezona ndawo zikhulu ezifunekayo ukuze kulungiswe inguquko yemithetho-siseko buthetha ukuba utshintsho lwenzeka ngotoliko lwezomthetho kunokuba lulungiswe ngokusesikweni.
Impikiswano emalunga nokutshintshwa komGaqo-siseko eUnited States iquka izicelo ezibhekisa kwimali yephulo, iElectoral College, iMida yeGaqo-siseko, imilinganiselo yoqingqo-mali elungelelanisiweyo, kunye namalungelo alinganayo emali kungakhathaliseki ukuba sisini. Ngoxa kungekho nasinye kwezi zindululo esiye safumana inkxaso efunekayo ekuhlawulweni, zibonakalisa iingxubusho eziqhubekayo ngemilinganiselo yesiseko kunye nezakhiwo.
Utshintsho lomgaqo - siseko luyaqhubeka ngokukhawuleza emhlabeni wonke, ekubeni amazwe amaninzi esoloko elungisa umgaqo - siseko wawo ukuze acombulule iingxaki ezivelayo. Iingxaki eziquka ukuzimela kwamanani, ubuchule bokwenziwa, ukutshintsha kwemozulu nokufuduka komhlaba wonke zisenokubangela ukuba kulungiswe umgaqo - siseko kwihlabathi lonke.
Iingxaki Nokugxekwa Kokuhlaziywa KomGaqo-siseko
Ngoxa ukulungisa umGaqo-siseko kusebenza imisebenzi ebalulekileyo, kukwavelisa iingxaki yaye kuye kwagxekwa ngeendlela ezahlukahlukeneyo.
Ubunzima BobuMejoritha
Ukutshintshwa komGaqo-siseko, xa kuthe kwagunyaziswa, kunokuba nzima kakhulu ukutshintsha, kusenokuba kutshixo kwiinkqubo ezingasabonisi zikhethelo ezininzi. Le nkalo idiza-majoritarian iphakamisa imibuzo ngokusemthethweni kwedemokhrasi, ingakumbi xa iziphumo ziqinisekiswe phantsi kwe-affice elinganiselweyo okanye kwiimeko ezahlukeneyo zembali.
Imiphumo Engacwangciswanga
IziHlaliso zisenokuba neziphumo ezingalindelekanga ezibonakala kuphela ngokuzalisekisa nangokutolika kwezahlulelo. Ukupheliswa kweNkqutyana kunika umzekelo ocacileyo wokulungisa okungazange kuphumeze iinjongo ezicetyiweyo kwaye kubangele iingxaki eziphawulekayo ezingacwangciswanga.
Imida Yokunyanzelisa
Njengoko imbali yoMhlaziyo weshumi elinesihlanu ibonisa, amalungiselelo omgaqo - siseko asebenza kuphela njengoko kusetyenziswa iindlela zokunyanzelisa.
I-Rigings-bbles
Ubunzima bomgaqo-siseko otshintshayo bungakukomelela kwaye bube bubuthathaka. Ngexa iqinisekisa uzinzo kwaye ithintela utshintsho olukhawulezileyo, ingenza umgaqo-siseko ungabi nakusabela okufanelekileyo kwiimeko ezitshintshayo, ezinokuthi zikhokelele kwiimeko ezimaxongo zomgaqo-siseko okanye ukuxhomekeka kwiinkcazelo ezididayo.
Indima YeziHlanziso ZomGaqo-siseko Kuluntu Olulawulwa Yidemokhrasi
Utshintsho lomGaqo-siseko lusebenza imisebenzi emininzi ebalulekileyo kwibutho ledemokhrasi. Zinikezela iindlela zokuguqula uxolo, zivumela uluntu luziqhelanise ngaphandle kwenguquko. Zikhusela amalungelo asisiseko kwiinkulu zokwexeshana, ziqinisekisa ukuba imigaqo ethile ihlala ingaphaya kokufikelela kwezobupolitika eziqhelekileyo. Zibonakalisa kwaye zibumba amaxabiso esizwe, zisebenza njengengxelo zozibophelelelo olunzulu lwebutho labantu.
Ukuhlaziywa kwemithetho kukwanceda ukuba kuxoxwe inzala, kuvumele isizukulwana ngasinye ukuba sifake igalelo ekuphuhlisweni komGaqo-siseko ngoxa sijongene nomsebenzi wezizukulwana ezingaphambili. Inkqubo yokulungisa ifuna ukuvumelana okubanzi, ukukhuthaza ukucinga nokulalanisa kunokungenelo olunciphileyo.
Ukuqonda iziphene zomGaqo-siseko kubalulekile ukuze sibe nabuzwe obunolwazi. La malungiselelo abumba amalungelo esiwanandiphayo, isakhiwo sikarhulumente wethu, nemilinganiselo exhaswa libutho lethu. Enoba sithetha ngokungekho sikweni ngokwembali, siqhelanisa neengxaki ezintsha, okanye sikhusele inkululeko esisiseko, ukutshintshwa komGaqo-siseko kusengundoqo kwidemokhrasi.
Oovimba Abanokufundwa Ngokubhekele Phaya
Abo bafuna ukufunda okungakumbi ngezinguquko zomgaqo-siseko, kukho izinto ezininzi ezikhoyo:
- [[UMKCIT: 0] Ugcino-lwazi lwesizwe lunika ukufumaneka kumaxwebhu angaphambili omgaqo-siseko kunye noovimba bemfundo malunga nokulungiswa
- Iziko lomGaqo-siseko wesizwe linikela imiboniso edityanisiweyo, iinkqubo zokufundisa, kunye noovimba bobuchule ekutolikeni komgaqo-siseko
- [[NKQUBO] I-Cunistitution Accordion esuka kwiThala leencwadi leKhomishini inika uhlalutyo olubanzi lwemimiselo kunye nezilungiso zomgaqo-siseko
- Oolindixesha abanjenge - Harvard Law Review, Yale Law Journal, neCommentary yoMgaqo - siseko bapapasha amanqaku angoochwepheshe athetha ngokutshintshwa komgaqo - siseko
- Imibutho enjenge Inkululeko yengingqi yeMelika [ inika ulwazi ngendlela utshintsho lomgaqo-siseko oluchaphazela ngayo imiba yenkululeko yabemi yanamhlanje
Isiphelo
Izindululo zomGaqo-siseko zimela umgudu oqhubekayo woluntu wokudala iinkqubo ezigqibeleleyo zorhulumente kunye neentlanga ezisesikweni. Ukusuka kwiBhili yamaLungelo akhusela inkululeko yomntu ngamnye ukuya kulwandiso lolungiso oluthetha ngelifa lobukhoboka, ukusuka ekubopheleleni amabhinqa ukuya kukhuseleko lokuvota, ukulungisa kuye kwandisa inkululeko nokulingana ngeli xesha kulungiselelwa iinkqubo zomgaqo-siseko ukuya kutshintsha amaxesha.
Imizekelo echazwe kweli nqaku ``imbali yaseMelika' kunye nokulungisa okubalulekileyo okuvela kwamanye amazwe') bonisa amandla kunye nokungagqibeki komGaqo-siseko. Uhlaziyo lungaguqula uluntu, kodwa kufuneka umgudu oqhubekayo, ukuvumelana okubanzi nokuhlala uphaphile ukuze kuqinisekiswe izithembiso zalo.
Njengoko sijamelene neengxaki zale mihla kuquka ukutshintsha kobugcisa, ukumanyana kwemekobume, nokuqondwa okugqwethekileyo kwamalungelo nokulingana, ukutshintshwa komgaqo-siseko kuza kuqhubeka kudlala indima ebalulekileyo ekuxonxeni ikamva lethu elisisidibi. Ukuqonda le mbali kunye nale migaqo kunika abemi amandla okuba babe nenxaxheba kwiingxoxo eziqhubekayo zomGaqo-siseko nokuxhasa imilinganiselo abakholelwa ukuba ifanele isekelwe kumthetho osisiseko.
Enoba ngokutshintshwa okusesikweni okanye ngokucaciswa okuguquguqukayo, umgaqo-siseko uhlala ukho kumaxwebhu akhoyo abonisa iminqweno yethu ephakamileyo ngoxa ulungiselela ilungiselelo lokucombulula ezona ngxaki zinzima. Ibali lokulungisa umGaqo-siseko ekugqibeleni liyibali ledemokhrasi ngokwayo ($igqibelele, iyakhuphisana, kodwa isoloko izabalazela iingcamango zokusesikweni, ukulingana, nesidima sabantu.