Uhlaziyo Lweshumi Negunya Likarhulumente

UMgaqo-siseko weUnited States umisela inkqubo ephindiweyo karhulumente apho igunya lahlulwe phakathi korhulumente wesizwe noorhulumente. Ulungiso-mthetho lwe-Tenteth lugcinwe ngokucacileyo kumazwe onke amagunya angagunyaziswanga kurhulumente worhulumente okanye angagunyaziswanga kumazwe. Olu tshintsho luye lwasebenza njengentsika yesiseko segunya lorhulumente kumgangatho obanzi wezomthetho, ukusuka kwimpilo kawonke-wonke ukuya kumthetho onyanzeliswa. Imida ecacileyo yorhulumente omelene norhulumente isoloko ivavanywa, rhoqo ngemithetho yemithetho yesazulu, imicimbi yezolawulo, kunye nemithetho yenkundla ephakamileyo. Ukuqonda ezi nkundla zelifa lokwenene zehlabathi kuyimfuneko ukuva indlela elisebenza ngayo i-Melika yorhulumente ekusebenze ngayo.

Isifundo setyala: Ukwenziwa komthetho kweMarijuana kunye noMthetho oLawulweyo

Umzekelo ophambili weli xesha likarhulumente ojongene nomthetho karhulumente kukwenza umyabelo osemthethweni. Ngaphantsi kolawulo lwamaqumrhu uLawulo lweSubstances Act ka 1970, umyayi ucaciswe njengeShedyuli I, okuthetha ukuba unamathuba aphezulu okuxhatshazwa kwaye akukho nyango lwamayeza. Oku kwenza ukuveliswa, ukwabiwa, nokuba nokuphathwa komjumba kube ngumthetho karhulumente. Kodwa, ukususela kumthetho wezonyango lwe-California womjumba ngo-199, inani elikhulayo lamazwe amisela imithetho engqubanayo ngqo nomthetho karhulumente.

IColorado yaba yeyokuqala ukubhalisa ngokusemthethweni ulonwabo lomjujelo osetyenziswa ngabantu abadala ngonyaka ka-2012, ilandela umvoti we-Obama, uMphengululo 64. Ukususela ngoko, ngaphezu kwamashumi amabini amaphondo `````iWashington', Oregon, ne-California'''' ulandelise i Sukwenza imowrive. Olu vavanyo lwexesha likarhulumente luye lwadala umsebenzi onzima osemthethweni. Ngoxa iSebe le-U.S. Le komiti yoLugwebo phantsi kolawulo lwe-Obama yakhupha iCole Memorand [, eyayalela abatshutshisi-omeli ukuba bangaqhubeki ngokomthetho inkqubo yokusebenza naliphi naliphi ixesha elifanelekileyo lokurhweba ngomthetho, kwaye ingasebenzi nakusetyenziswa kwenkqubo ye-Roffsethi ye-ography.

Le meko ibonisa ukuxinana okusisiseko: ithetha ukuba usebenzisa amandla awo abekwe amapolisa ukulawula impilo nokhuseleko kwimida yawo, ngelixa urhulumente wesizwe egcina igunya elingomgaqo-siseko lokulawula urhwebo lwamazwe ngamazwe kunye nemithetho yeziyobisi. Le ngxabano ayinakuconjululwa ngaphandle kwesenzo sombutho sokuphinda ungcolise umyasa okanye iNkundla ePhakamileyo elawula umgangatho wamandla oshishino kule meko. Ukuqwalasela ngokucokisekileyo umbhalo weSimente seshumi kunye nembali yaso, iCornell Information Information Institute of the geqedmentation inikeza ingxelo entle.

Imigudu Yokulwela Ukuphelisa Ityala neNkundla Ephakamileyo

Ngapha koko umyadi, amanye amaphondo aye azama ukucela uMthetho weSihlalo weshumi ukuphelisa imithetho karhulumente ngokupheleleyo. Le migudu yokuphelisa isebe iye yasetyenziswa kwimimandla enjenge-Aaron, imimiselo yemipu karhulumente, kunye nemigangatho yemeko-bume. Ngoxa iNkundla ePhakamileyo iye yasoloko ikholelwa ukuba imithetho ayinakuphinda ingabi nakuthintelwa (umgaqo oqinisekiswe kwiimeko ezifana no [FLT: 0] Coper v. Aaron[FLT]], le mingeni yomfuziselo neyomthetho inyanzela urhulumente worhulumente ukuba akhusele igunya lakhe ngokuphindaphindiwe. Ukuquququzelelana kwegunya lorhulumente nolawulo lungamele urhulumente wombuso uninzi.

Igunya lomanyano noMbutho kaRhulumente

Ngeli xesha uHlaziyo lweNguqulo lweshumi lunika umthetho wesindululo esibanzi, u-Claus kwiGatya le- VI lomGaqo-siseko limisa ukuba umthetho wesizwe ngumthetho ophakamileyo welizwe. Xa urhulumente norhulumente ungquzulana, umthetho wesizwe usoloko ulawula, ukuba ungaphakathi kwamandla adwelisiweyo eBhunga. Le mfundiso ye- isetyenziswa kwimosmemo ezininzi, ingakumbi kwimida yengingqi, apho urhulumente worhulumente unegunya lokufuduka nolawulo lwendalo.

Ufundo lwetyala: Ufuduko olunyanzelwayo kunye neSB 1070 yase Arizona

Ngo-2010, i-Arizona yawisa umthetho we-SB , umthetho welizwe okhukulisiweyo owenzelwe ukuthintela ukufuduka okungekho mthethweni ngokufuna amagosa amapolisa ukuba ahlole ubume bokufuduka kwabantu ababumisayo ukuba kukho ukrokralo olusengqiqweni ukuba umntu ungekho semthethweni. Abaxhasi baphikisa ukuba umthetho wawuyimfuneko kuba urhulumente wezwe ungaphumeleli ukunyanzelisa imithetho yokufuduka ngokufanelekileyo. Abachasi babambelele kwelokuba ukunyanzelisa ukufuduka kungumthwalo womthetho wesizwe kwaye umthetho uzakukhokelela ekubangeleni ubuhlanga obungekho mthethweni kunye nokungqubana izinto eziphambili.

Ityala lafikelela kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. ngo-2012 kwi-Arizona v. United States. INkundla yawisa phantsi kathathu kumalungiselelo amane avavanyiweyo, ibambe ukuba i-Arizona yayingenatyala kwingingqi karhulumente. Abagwebi balawula ukuba imithetho yorhulumente ayinakukwazi ukwenza ulawulo olwahlukeneyo lokunyanzelisa abantu olungqubana nomthetho kazwelonke. Kodwa iNkuntyusa ivumela ukuba i "bonisa amaphepha akho" ilungiselelo lokuma, nangona ilumkisa ukuba isenokuphinda icelwe kwezinye izizathu. Esi sigqibo saphinda sivuse i-phinde sivuse i-jike i-ntloko ye-burhulumente kwingingqi yentsebenziswano yezombuso. Uluvo olupheleleyo lungafundwa kwiprojelo [FLT:]

Iziphumo ze Arizona v. United States aziyiphelisanga imigudu yorhulumente. Iimeko ezininzi zigqithe isixeko esitsha [ imigaqo emisela intsebenziswano namagunya okufuduka karhulumente, ngoxa ezinye, njengoTexas, zimisele imithetho enyanzela ukunyanzelisa umthetho wasekuhlaleni ukuba uncedise. Le miba iyaqhubeka kwiinkundla zikarhulumente, iqinisekisa ubunzima bokuzoba nemigca ecocekileyo phakathi korhulumente norhulumente kunye negunya lorhulumente kwinkqubo elungiselelwe ulawulo olwahlukeneyo.

Ukhukuliso lokusingqongileyo

Ukufuduswa komthetho wombuso akuyo ndawo yodwa apho igunya lesizwe lilawula umthetho wesizwe. Umthetho wokusingqongileyo ngomnye ummandla ozele ziingxabano zokukhulula. uMthetho we-Esply Air uvumela i-Ntrolmental Protection Agency (EPA) ukuba imisele imigangatho yobunjani bomoya wesizwe, kodwa amazwe ajongene nokusebenza ngokuzalisekisa izicwangciso zikarhulumente. Noko ke, iCalifornia iphethe isithintela esikhethekileyo ukumisela imilinganiselo yayo engqongqo yezithuthi zokukhupha imoto phakathi kolawulo lwesizwe nenkqubo yezobume bemeko-RGeneralpolate (ainer) ukuze ulawulo lwe-Trump lufune ukurhoxisa, nto leyo ekhokelela kwidabiko-mthetho. Ubuchule borhulumente bokukhupha imodeli yesizwe okanye ukumisela ukuba umthetho owenziwe ngumthetho wesizwe onamandla kwinkqubo yokulungisa imeko-zwe lonke.

Iimeko Zengxaki Nentsebenziswano

Kwimeko ezingxamisekileyo .Nto eyintlekele yendalo, iingxaki zempilo kawonke-wonke, okanye izisongelo zokhuseleko, zingatshintsha ngokuphawulekayo. Urhulumente wengingqi unobuxhakaxhaka kunye negunya elichaza ukuba abukho, kodwa uxanduva lokuqala lokuphendula luxhomekeke kurhulumente noorhulumente basekuhlaleni phantsi koMthetho . Le nkqubo ingenza uxambuliso xa amathemba ehlukene ngesantya okanye umgangatho woncedo lwamazwe.

Ufundisiso Lwetyala: Inkanyamba uKatrina (2005)

Inkanyamba uKatrina, eyabetha iGulf Coast ngoAgasti 2005, iseyeyona mizekelo inamandla yobunzima boburhulumente kwingxaki. Isichotho satshabalalisa iNew Orleans kunye nemimandla engqongileyo, amandla amakhulu karhulumente kunye nezixhobo zokusabela zasekuhlaleni. I-Federal Emergency Management Agency Agency (FEMA) isebenzisa ubuncwane kunye nabasebenzi, kodwa intsabelo sagxekwa ngokuba sithe kade, asilungelelani, kwaye asifanelekanga. Amagosa aseburhulumenteni, kuquka iRhuluneli yaseLouisiana IKathleen Blanco, yachaza unxunguphalo ngemigudu karhulumente, ngoxa amagosa karhulumente ayekhomba izicelo zikarhulumente zokungacaca okanye ezilibazisayo.

Uphando lwengqungquthela elandelayo lwafumanisa ukuba onke amanqanaba karhulumente angaphumeleli ukulungelelanisa ngokunempumelelo. Iziphumo zakhokelela kwiinguqu kwiFEMA kunye neNational Revolution Framework, kodwa intlekele yagxininisa uxinezeleko olungundoqo: urhulumente wengingqi unamandla okuphendula, kodwa urhulumente ulawula ulawulo lwamalungiselelo olawulo kaxakeka. FEMA unikela iinkcukacha kwimpendulo nezifundo zikarhulumente.

Ngokwahlukileyo koko, ukuphendula kwe-Hurricane Sandy ngo-2012 kwabona intsebenziswano engcono yesizwe neyamaphondo, nangona iimpikiswano mayelana nokwabiwa kwemali zaqhubeka. Le mizekelo ibonisa ukuba iimeko zengxaki zidla ngokuvavanya ukunwebeka kwenkqubo yengingqi ngendlela ezingacacanga.

Izakhono zoluntu kunye ne-COVID-19

Kutshanje, indyikitya yokungahlangani kwemeko-ntle yaseMelika. Urhulumente wesizwe, esebenzisa iziko loLawulo neSithintelo sezifo (CDC) kunye neSebe Lezonyango Lezempilo NeeNkonzo Zoluntu, wakhupha ukhokelo lokufihla, lokuvavanya, kunye nolokugonya. Kodwa amaphondo enza izigqibo zawo ekuzifakeni izitshixo, ukuvalwa kwesikolo, kunye nezigqubu zesigqubuthelo. AmaGalume akwamanye amazwe akhupha imiyalelo egunya legunya elilawulayo engqubana nemiyalelo kamasipala, adala umsebenzi owenziwe ngemithetho egqubuthelekisiweyo. Inkundla ePhakamileyo yavavanya uvavanyo, kunye nokugonyazisa imiyalelo yomthetho olawulayo, iqinisekisa ingcamango yokuba ngoxa urhulumente wesizwe enokwenza ngexesha likaxakeka, kufuneka athobele imiqathangokwawo onke amagunya awo acacileyo. Inkundla yemithetho e-Aptionalinvincelventine; kwaye imele ibonise igosane igosane.

Umgaqo-nkqubo wemfundo noLawulo lweRhulumente

Imfundo ngummandla omiselwe ngokwesithethe kumazwe, njengoko ingakhankanywanga kumGaqo-siseko. UMthetho woLawulo lweSihlalo weshumi ushiya inkqubo yemfundo ubukhulu becala isiya kwimithetho yowiso-mthetho kunye neebhodi zesikolo zasekuhlaleni. Noko ke, urhulumente wengingqi uye wasebenzisa ngokuqhubekayo amandla awo okusebenzisa inkqubo kunye ne iCommerce Clause ukuphembelela imiqathango yemfundo, nto leyo ekhokelela kwingquzulano yokulawula nokuziphendulela.

Ukufundwa Kwetyala: Akukho Mntwana Ushiywe Emva Kokwenza Umthetho

Idlula ngo-2001 ngenkxaso enamandla ye-bipartisan, Akukho mntwana Oshiyekileyo kuMthetho (NCLB) wamela olona ncedo lwesizwe olunemanyukubela kwimfundo ukuza kuthi ga ngoku. Kwafuneka ukuba kubekho iimeko zokuvavanya okusemgangathweni, ukumisela amaxhoba, kwaye kubonise "ulwandiso lwaminyaka le" lwenkqubela-nyaka" kuwo onke amaqela angaphantsi abafundi. Izikolo ezingaphumelelanga ukuhlangabezana nezibheno zolwaleko, kuquka ukuphinda kuqinisekiswe kunye nokunokwenzeka kokuphulukana nolawulo lweSihlomelo sesizwe I. Ngexesha lamazwe agcinwe ekulawuleni ugcino-nkqubo kunye nomfundisi-cB ebekwe kulawulo lukarhulumente, i-NCLB ebekwe kuqwalayelo olujonge abahlolwayo ukuba abafundi abaninzi bajonge njengeqela elinzima.

Ngasekupheleni kowama- 2000, inani elandayo lamaphondo kunye nabafundisi-maya lathi imilinganiselo ye-NCLB ayisebenzi kwaye iyanika isohlwayo. Ulawulo lwe-Obama lwaphendula nge- i-RS kwiNtloko ePhezulu, inkqubo ekhuphisanayo ekhuthaza ukuba ifumane imigangatho yekholeji kunye nomsebenzi olungiselelweyo (njengeCore eqhelekileyo) kwaye ivavanye abafundisi-bafundisi abasekelwe kuvavanyo lwabafundi. Amazwe awathi amelana nomngcipheko wokuphulukana namandla okusebenzisa imali athe athe agxekwa ngawo.

Ngo- 2015, iKhompathiswa yathatha indawo ye-NCLB nge- Umfundi ngamnye ophumeleleyo kumthetho (ESSA), obuye wabuyisela igunya elibalulekileyo kulawulo. I-ESSA igcina iimfuno zovavanyo zikarhulumente kodwa ivumela iimeko ukuba zimisele iinjongo zabo, ziyila iinkqubo zokuziphendulela, ze zigqibe indlela yokungenelela kwizikolo ezisezantsi. Olu tshintsho lubonisa ukujingajinga-jinga phakathi kolawulo nomvanolawulo lukarhulumente kunye nomthetho. Isebe lemfundo lizigcina zizonke iinjongo zalo. [[FLTLT:]] ucalulo lwezimo olwenziwayo luchaza inkqubo yangoku.

Ulawulo lweRhulumente luchasana namalungelo oMsebenzi

Ngaphandle kokuziphendulela, inkqubo yemfundo ikwadibana nokunyanzeliswa kwamalungelo abantu. Urhulumente wesizwe unegunya lokungahlawuli imali kwizikolo ezicalucalucalulo ngokwezizizikolo ezisekelwe kwisizwe, kwisini, okanye kwisiphendu, phantsi kwemithetho enjengeSihloko VI, i-Title IX, kunye ne-Assommental Persuable Education Act (IEA). Ngoxa amaphondo elawula iinkqubo zawo zesikolo sikarhulumente, kufuneka athobele ezi migaqo karhulumente yokuqhubeka efumana inkxaso-mali karhulumente. Le ngxaki iye yaba ngumthombo weengxaki, ingakumbi kwiimeko ezibandakanya amalungelo abafundi okanye ingqeqesho yesikolo. Urhulumente uyakwazi ukukwazi ukuxhasa izikolo "impatho zolawulo" ," kwaye isisixhobo esinamandla sokuphembelela imekobume, kodwa iNkuNkuntlulo ephakamileyo imele ibe nenyamezelweyo inzala yolawulo olunxulumene nentlalo lolawulo.

Amalungelo asekuhlaleni kunye noMbutho

Ukukhusela amalungelo abantu ngokwembali kuye kwafuna ungenelelo olunamandla lwesizwe embalini ukuze yoyise ucalulo olukhutshwe ngurhulumente. Ngaphambi kwemfazwe yabemi, amazwana aqinisekisa ilungelo lokumisela ubumi kunye nokunyanzelisa ucalucalulo lobuhlanga phantsi kwemfundiso "yamalungelo esizwe". Ulungiso-mthetho lwe-Reconstationon (umnyaka we-18, we-14, nowe-15) kunye nomthetho wesizwe olandelayo watshintsha ulungelelwaniso lwesizwe, uvumela urhulumente ukuba anyanzele urhulumente ukuba axhase urhulumente ukuba akhusele ukhuseleko olulinganayo kunye nenkqubo efanelekileyo.

Isifundo setyala: Brown v. Board of Education and School Dese Convention

Incopho yeNkundla ePhakamileyo yowama-1954 ityala leNkundla ePhakamileyo v. Ibhodi yemfundo yaseTopeka ngumzekelo obalulekileyo womthetho wegunya likarhulumente olawulayo wolawulo lokunyanzelisa amalungelo omgaqo-siseko. INkundla ngamacala ngamacala onke yabambelela kwimithetho emisela izikolo zikawonke-wonke ezithi zimiselwe abamnyama nabamhlophe kubafundi abamhlophe. Le sigqibo saphula umthetho ngqo owe-"Siphendulo kodwa silingana" semfundiso emiselwe [FLT:] ngo-1896].[FLT:[FLT] V[FLT].. Umbhalo opheleleyo [FLT:]

Phezu kwayo nje isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo, amazwe amaninzi aseMazantsi awalwamkela umanyano kangangeminyaka. Abanye abalawuli, abafana no-Orval Faubus wase-Arkansas, bathumela i-National Guards ukukhusela abafundi abantsundu ekungeneni kuzo zonke izikolo ezimhlophe. UMongameli Dwight D. Eisenhower waphendula ngokugunyazisa umkhosi wesizwe iArkansas kwaye wathumela umkhosi womkhosi wase-U.S. umkhosi ukuba ukhaphelise abafundi abasithobayo kwiSlo eliphezulu elinguMbindileyo. Lo mbutho walungceleleko wamazwe umelo wasetyenziswa ukunyanzela amalungelo omgaqo-siseko xa angafuni ukuthobela.

Ukhuthuzo lwala Macandelo: Amalungelo aqikelelwayo

Kule mihla, uMthetho wamaLungelo o-1965 wanika urhulumente wolawulo olupheleleyo ukuba angene kuqheliselo lonyulo lwamazwe, ingakumbi kumagunya akwimbali yocalulo lobuhlanga. ICandelo 5 lomsebenzi ofunekayo kumazwe athile kunye neendawo ukufumana "precrecuatiation" kwiSebe leJaji leSigwe phambi kokuba lenze naluphi na utshintsho kwimithetho yabo yokuvota. Eli lungiselelo lalingungenelelo olubalulekileyo kulawulo lorhulumente, kodwa laligwetyelwa ngumdlalo onyanzelayo ekukhuseleni amalungelo amancinane okuvota.

Noko ke, kwityala lonyaka ka-2013 iShelby County v. Umphetho weNkundla ePhakamileyo wawisa phantsi inkqubo esetyenziselwa ukumisela ukuba zeziphi izithuba eziphantsi kwe-prelication, iphikisa ukuba indlela yokubophelela ayizange iphelelwe lixesha. INkundla ayizange iyenze buthathaka inkqubo yokuqululisa iprojectalgation ngokwayo, kodwa ngaphandle kwendlela ehlaziyiweyo, iCandelo 5 lazinziwa ngokomthetho. Le ngxoxo eqhubekayo itshintshele emva kumazwe, iwavumele ukuba amkele imithetho ye-ovota, arhoxile, aguqule imigaqo yokuvota engavunyelwanga ngaphambi kwemvume yomthetho karhulumente. Kwimpendulo, iBhunga lomthetho aliphumelelanga ukudlulisa umthetho omtsha wokubuyisela ulawulo, ishiya umlinganiselo ophezulu kulawulo oluphezulu kulawulo. Ingxoxo eqhubekayo kumalungelo olawulo lwe-Rhulumente.

Isiphelo: Ingxoxo Eqhubekayo

Imizekelo exutyushweyo .(ukunikezelwa komthetho ngokomthetho kunye nokugcinwa komthetho kwemijelo yokufuduka ukuya kulwamkelo lwentlekele namalungelo abantu) ibonakalisa ukuba ulwalamano phakathi korhulumente norhulumente alumi ndawonye. Isoloko imiliselwe ngumthetho, izigqibo zomthetho, izenzo zolawulo, izenzo zolawulo-mthetho, kunye nezenzo ezitshintsha-tshintshayo zezobupolitika. UMthetho-Mphengululo weshumi elinesithoba nowesiSuprety Claus umela ii-pal; uqheliselo lwehlabathi lokwenene lusebenza phakathi, kunye namazwe asebenza njengeetriratories-demokramential kunye norhulumente olungiselela imigangatho efanayo xa kuyimfuneko.

Ukuqonda ezi ntshukumo kubalulekile kuye nabani na obandakanyeka kulawulo lwamaMelika. Ulungelelwaniso lwamandla alusokuze luconjululwe ekugqibeleni; luguqula ngokuphikisana ngengxoxo entsha yenkqubo, ucelomngeni lomgaqo-siseko, kunye namanqam. Ootitshala, abalawuli bemigaqo-nkqubo, kunye nabemi ngokufanayo kufuneka bahlale beyiqonda indlela ezi mikhosi eziyilolonga ngayo imeko esemthethweni neyopolitiki yesizwe. Ikamva lolawulo lolawulo loburhulumente liya kuxhomekeka kwindlela inkqubo ekwazi ngayo ukuvelisa imingeni evelisa imingeni ekhoyo, inguqulelo yemekobume, impilo kawonke wonke, okanye amalungelo abantu, ngexesha eligcina imigaqo engundoqo yolawulo lwesizwe ekhokela uhlanga ukususela ekusungulweni kwalo.