Isiseko somGaqo-siseko senkqubo elindelekileyo

Ibinzana elithi "umsebenzi ophambili womthetho" lilandela iMagna Carta (1215), apho uKumkani uJohn wavuma ukuba akukho mntu okhululekileyo oza kuhluthwa ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla ngaphandle komgwebo osemthethweni woontanga bakhe okanye umthetho welizwe. Le ngcamango yasiwa kuMgaqo-siseko we-U.S. owenziwa kwinkqubo yesihlanu (1791), esebenza kurhulumente wesizwe, yaye kamva isebenza kurhulumente weSinyuso-145 seSinyusombululo, esithi sinyuse isongezelele iso sinye kwimithetho kunye noorhulumente bendawo. Le ngcamango isenza isakhiwo soburhulumente soburhulumente bamazwe ababini sibe yinkqubo yokuzala i-Rhulumente neso sobuzwe (179191), echaza ukuba kufuneke izinto ezifanelekileyo, kwaye ivumelane nezenzo ezingundoqo zolwaphulo-mthetho, nokuba ngaba urhulumente bomthetho-Celanslanston, okanye abanzileyo ingurhulumente abayalela ingurhulumente; bagweba loo nkqubo ekufuneka ukuba phakathi kwemithetho elungileyo, isetyenziswe yiNkuxhasa.

Iintsika Ezimbini Zenkqubo Elindelekileyo: Iprocedtural kunye neMphantsi

Inkqubo eQhelekileyo

Idilesi zenkqubo efunekayo zenkqubo `unjani' urhulumente wenza xa ehlutha umntu ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla. Imfuneko engundoqo kukuba umntu afumane isaziso esaneleyo kunye nethuba elinentsingiselo lokuviwa phambi komenzi wesigqibo ongakhethiyo. Iinkqubo ezikhethekileyo ezifunekayo ziyahluka-hluka kuxhomekeka kumongo, ukulinganisa umdla wobuqu esiphangweni, umngcipheko wokuncitshiswa kwempazamo, kunye nomdla karhulumente ekusebenzeni kakuhle. Imizekelo yezo zinto iquka:

  • Ukuvavanywa kwezaphuli - mthetho: ilungelo lokucetyiswa, lokujamelana namangqina, lokuchotshelwa kwetyala nokuzithethelela.
  • Amatyala athintelwayo abemi: ilungelo lokukhuphisana ngokuphanga impahla nokufumana isaziso ngaphambi kokuba urhulumente agqibe.
  • Ukusetyenziswa kwamalungelo abazali: imfuneko yobungqina obucacileyo nobuneyiseleyo yaye ngokufuthi ukuchotshelwa kwetyala phambi kwejaji.
  • Ukungafezeki kuyingenelo ekukhanyeni: ilungelo lokuviwa phambi kwesebe nokucalucalulwa emva koko.

Ityala eliphawulayo . IMathews v. iEldridge yaseka uvavanyo oluzinxenye ezintathu zokulinganisela ukufumana ukuba yeyiphi inkqubo efunekayo. Iinkundla zinobunzima (1) inzala yobuqu echaphazelekayo, (2) ubungozi bokungafunwa kwempazamo phantsi kwenkqubo zangoku kunye nexabiso elilindelekileyo lezongezelelo, kunye (3) nomdla karhulumente, kuquka imfuno yemithwalo kunye nemithwalo yolawulo. Olu vavanyo luye lwasetyenziswa kumawaka eemeko, ukusuka kwizifundo zokhuseleko lweNtlalo ukuya kwiinkqubo zesikolo zikawonke-wonke. Ngoko ke, ayiyo imilinganiselo enye yomlinganiselo-umlinganiselo we-ukhuselo-onke; ingumgangatho olungele ukuqinisekisa okusesikweni kwiimeko ezithile.

Inkqubo elindelekileyo

Substantive due process is far more controversial. It holds that certain fundamental rights are so deeply rooted in the nation's history and traditions that the government may not infringe upon them, no matter how fair the procedures. Instead of asking how the government deprives, substantive due process asks whether the government has a sufficiently compelling reason to interfere with a constitutionally protected liberty. The Supreme Court first explicitly recognized substantive due process in Lochner v. New York (1905), where it struck down a law limiting bakers' work hours as an interference with the "liberty of contract." That era ended in the 1930s, but the doctrine was revived later to protect rights such as:

  • [[NTL: 0] ekunene ukutshata [ i- Virginia, 1967; Obergefell v. Hodges, 2015).
  • [[UMTL: 0] Ekunene ukusebenzisa ukuthintela ukukhawula (Griswold v. Connecticut, 1965]).
  • ekunene ekuqhosheni [ [ Roe v. Wade, 1973, igqitywe kwi [ Dobs v. Jackson Amabhinqa 'Asempilweni , 2022].
  • [[NTL:0] Ekunene kumzali ozimeleyo (Pierce v.uSociety of Oodade], 1925; Troxel v. Granville[, 2000]).
  • [[UMTL: 0] ekunene kwingqibelelo yomzimba (umz. Shashington v. Glucksberg, 1997, malunga noncedo lokuzibulala).

Uvavanyo lwangoku lwenkqubo efunekayo, ecacisiweyo ku Shahington v. Glucksberg, lufuna ukuba olu vavanyo luqinisekiswe ngokunzulu (1) "lusekelwe kwimbali nesithethe" kunye (2) "Izintluphelo kwingcamango yenkululeko ecwangcisiweyo. Abagxeki baphikisa ukuba olu vavanyo alucacanga kwaye luvumela abagwebi ukuba bamisele iimbono zobuqu; abaxhasi baphikisa ukuba kuyimfuneko ukukhusela iintswela-ntwana nemigaqo yentlalo ekhoyo. I-Dos ekhethekileyo isigqibo esibambekelweyo [FLT] [FLT] [FFLT]], esithenjiweyo], esincindiweyo, esithe ngqo ngokufuneka kulungele ukusetyenziswa "indlela ephambili yembali" kunye nemeko oluthe lwamanyeneyo.

Amalungelo Angenakuthintelwa: Oko Akuko Nendawo Avela Kuyo

Amalungelo omGaqo-siseko azimeleyo namalungelo asemthethweni aquka inkululeko epheleleyo yokuGawulayo echaphazelekayo, ecuphiweyo, edityaniswe (edweliswe ngokuphandle kuMgaqo-siseko) okanye engakhutshwanga (esetyenziswe ngumbhalo, isiseko, okanye imbali yoMgaqo-siseko). Amalungelo athenjiweyo aquka inkululeko yokuHlaywa koQonda, ukuconga, ukushicilela, indibano, nonqulo; iSinyuselo seSibini sokuLamla sokuLamla nokuphatha izixhobo; ukhuseleko lwesine lokuthintelwa nokuphazanyiswa okungaqiqiqinileyo; kunye nomthetho wesi-sibhozo othintelwayo kwisohlwayo neso olungekho sizathu. Amalungelo angenayo asuka kumalungelo aphezulu omthetho omthetho omthetho ogunyaziweyo, kodwa akhusele nakumgangatho omninzi wolawulo lwe-Gawulayomgalelo-siseko, kodwa akhuseleke ngoku, akhuselwa kumalungelo awona malungelo omthetho wolawulo oluphantsi oluphantsi, kodwa akhuselwa ngoku, akhuselwayolo oluphantsi,

Amalungelo aphantsi azimeleyo, awaphelelanga. Amalungelo anzima anokuthintelwa okanye alawulwa ukuba urhulumente uhlangabezana nomgangatho othile wokuhlola. Kuwona malungelo angundoqo, iinkundla ziyasebenza uhlalutyo lwecandelo: urhulumente kufuneka abonise umdla onyanzelekileyo kwaye asebenzise ezona zinto zingqongqo. Amalungelo angengawo siseko semeko, njengamalungelo ezoqoqosho, iinkundla zisebenzisa isiseko sokwahlulwa [: umthetho kufuneka kuphela unxulunyanwe ncam nomdla ofanelekileyo karhulumente. Umgangatho wokuhlola ngokufuthi umisela ukuba ilungelo elincinci elikwimeko eliphantsi liyaphumelela kusinikiswe kumthetho. Umzekelo, ekunene ukuchaza ngokungqongqo ukusetyenziswa kwenkululeko nokuphononongagosa, ngexesha lokulandelela ukusetyenziswa kwelungu eliqhelekileyo nokungaphindwa kwemithetho.

Umahluko ongundoqo phakathi kwenkqubela elindelekileyo namalungelo angaphantsi

Nangona inkqubo efanelekileyo namalungelo aphantsi enkcubeko elungelelanisiweyo, asebenza imisebenzi eyahlukileyo:

  • [[NTLT: 0] Focus: inkqubo elindelekileyo imalunga ['iiprocess]. Iindlela kunye nezikhuseli apho izigqibo zikarhulumente zichaphazela abantu zinokwenziwa khona. Amalungelo esubstanti amalunga ne umgangatho wesikhundla
  • Inkqubo yokhuselo: inkqubo elindelekileyo ifuna iinkqubo zobulungisa phambi kokuba urhulumente athabathe into ethile. Amalungelo angaphantsi kwenqanawa akwalela urhulumente ukuba athabathe izenzo ezithile, nokuba kuyiphi inkqubo.
  • Imilinganiselo: Ukuba urhulumente ufuna ukuphelisa amalungelo akho obuzali, inkqubo efunekayo ifuna ukuva nokuqaphela. Kodwa ilungelo elingaphantsi kumzali umntwana wakho lithintela imeko ekususeni umntwana ngaphandle kwesizathu esinyanzelisayo, nokuba ukuva kufezekile.
  • [[NTL:0] Iingcambu zeCunistigation: inkqubo yenkcazelo efunekayo ithathwe ngqo kumbhalo wesiHlazo seMimiselo yeNhlanu neseshumi elinesine. Inkqubo efunekayo yemfundiso ephantsi yinkqubo ejongwayo esuka kwimiba efanayo, kodwa amandla nobungakanani bayo ziyaphikisana ngokushushu.
  • Utoliko lwento: inkqubo yentsingiselo yentsingiselo ithe ngqo kwaye idityaniswe nezibakala zemeko. Inkqubo efunekayo engaphantsi kwemeko isoloko ibandakanya imigwebo yexabiso elikhulu ngenkululeko nemilinganiselo yokuziphatha, ekhokelela kwimpikiswano engakumbi.

Ngokwesiko, umahluko ungafiphaza. Ngokomzekelo, ilungelo lokutshata liyinkqubo efunekayo elungileyo (ukuva) kunye nelungelo elingaphantsi (ukuLalela kweSithandathu sokuGqibela ityala likawonke wonke lingumgwebi ongakhethiyo). Ngokufanayo, ilungelo lokutshata linelungelo elingaphantsi elikhuselwe yinkqubo efunekayo, kodwa ukutshata kungafuna ukuthotyelwa ngokweemfuno ze-procedtura njengemvume yokufumana imvume. Isitshixo senkqubo efanelekileyo kukukhusela ububulungisa benkqubo, ngoxa amalungelo angaphantsi kwe-cartan echaza okuqulathwe yinzala yenkululeko.

Isizathu Sokuba Zombini Zibaluleke Kulawulo - melo LomGaqo-siseko

Ukhuseleko olubini lwenkqubo efunekayo namalungelo aphantsi afuna ukuthintelwa kobuzwilakhe kunye nokuqinisekisa ukuba abantu abangophantsi kwesenzo. Oku kumisela inkqubo efunekayo njengesaphulelo sokunyanzela urhulumente ukuba alandele imithetho emisiweyo. Kuqinisekisa ukuba naxa urhulumente esusa impahla okanye inkululeko yomntu, yenza ngokukhanya kwaye ngethuba lokukhuphisana nesenzo. Oku kuqinisa uluntu ekuthembekeni kwinkqubo esemthethweni. Amalungelo ombuso aphantsi kwemiqathango, okwangokuthi, aphumele ngaphandle kwemiqathango yobuqu yokuba urhulumente angena, akukho nto ikhoyo. Bakhusela amaqela alungeleleneyo, bagcine ukuchasana noodemokhrasi, bavumele abantu benze izigqibo zobuqu malunga nobomi babo, nokuba banokutshata njani, okanye banokunqula ngabantwana, okanye ngaphandle komgaqo--

Zidityanisiwe, ezi mfundiso zimbini zisenza ikhusi elibanzi lokuxhatshazwa kwemibutho engekho mthethweni kunye nokuphandwa okuncinane. Urhulumente olandela iinkqubo ezigqibeleleyo kodwa awawafuni amalungelo asisiseko (umz., urhulumente onika ukuva okupheleleyo phambi kokuvakalisa iqaqobana lohlanga) usekho ngokungqongqo. Ngokuchasene noko, urhulumente owamkelayo amalungelo aphantsi kodwa ongawaxhasiyo (umz., isiqinisekiso sokuthetha esinganyanzelekiyo) unikela ukhuseleko olungenamava. UMgaqo-siseko wase-mthetho wase-U.

Iintshumayelo Zanamhlanje Nempikiswano Eqhubekayo

Ukudibanisa inkqubo efanelekileyo namalungelo aphantsi ayaqhubeka evelisa iingxoxo ezinzulu zomthetho nezezobupolitika. Iimpikiswano ezintathu ezikhoyo zibonisa ezi

1. Ukuqhomfa Emva [[UMTL: 0]

Isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo yowama-2022 [220] ku- uGcino-mthetho lweNkundla yamabhinqa [[FT:1] lwakhupha umgaqo-siseko wesizwe wokukhupha isisu, lugqiba ukuba ayimilekanga kakhulu kwimbali. INkundla yathi inkqubo efunekayo ayikhuseli ukuqhomfa, ibuyisela imbambano kumthetho wendlu yowiso-mthetho. Oku kuye kwakhokelela kwimisebenzi yemithetho enzima yemithetho karhulumente, abanye bayithintele kakhulu kwaye abanye bayikhusela. Ngoku impikiswano isekelwe ekubeni ngaba [ [FLT]] [FLT] [FFF]] [3] inikela ingciso yokunga epheleleyo, iya kuthobca amalungelo angenakuthomalaliswa, njengakuwo kumtshato okhuselweyo [Foctive] [5] [5] ukuqinisekisa ukunyuswa komthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho omthetho womthetho omthetho omthetho omthetho omthetho omthetho omthetho othenjiweyo, ithe wahlukeneyo, ivumela i-F

2. Ukungagqibeki nokurhoxiswa

Inkundla ePhakamileyo iyavuma ukuba ukugxothwa kungu "ityala", kodwa ifuna ukuchotshelwa kakuhle, ukumelelwa okusemthethweni kwezinye iimeko ( ingumqathango wenkqubo efunekayo, nangona kungengawo onke amalungelo asebenzayo kubemi. Inkundla ePhakamileyo iye yathi ukugxothwa yimeko "kumgangatho", kodwa inkqubo efunekayo ifuna ukuchotshelwa kakuhle, ingakumbi ukuba imelo olusemthethweni lubangele ukhuseleko lwesizwe. ( Padillal v.[FLTY]], 2010, kunye nethuba lokumisela ukulingana phakathi kokhuseleko lwesizwe. Noko ke, urhulumente ungaba uthintela abantu ngabanye ngokweemeko ezinde zokhuseleko, ingakumbi ukuba benza ukhuseleko lwesizwe. Ukubekwa kwelungelo lasekunene lomntu ovelayo, okanye ukunikezelwa komanyano lwetyala lokhuseleko oluthe nyaka-19.

3. Ukulawulwa kwemipu kunye nohlaziyo lwesibini

Ilungelo lokugcina nokuphatha iingalo, ngoku liqatshelwe njengomntu ongaphantsi wamalungelo i-Dialior of Columbia v. Heller (2008) kwaye idityaniswe ngokuchasene namazwe ] McDonald v. Chicago[[[FLT]]] [2010] [0] [0] ifanele ilawule kuphela xa ingaphandle "isithethe sembali somthetho wemipu." iNkundla ePhakamileyo yeNkundla yama-20222 kumthetho [FLT:]] i-New York State Rifle & lamp; Pisilol Association ifuna ukulawulwa kwemithetho yompu phakathi kolu , kwaye ifuna ukusetyenziswa koluvo oluqhelekileyo lomthetho "uhlanga lwesithethe somkhosi lomkhosi lomkhosi wembali." Inza le nkqubo yembali esekelwe kuvavanyo olufanelekileyo kwimbali, ithetha ngolwazi oluqhelekileyo lwemeko oluqhelekileyo, uphando oluqhelekileyo lwemeko oluqhelekileyo, umqulu oluqhelekileyo lokuhlola phakathi kolukukhangelayokukhangela phakathi ko

Izicelo Ezisebenzisekayo Kubemi Nakumagcisa Asemthethweni

Ukuqonda umahluko phakathi kwenkqubo efunekayo kunye namalungelo aphantsi okulwayo. Kubahlali, kuchaza indlela yokucel ’ umngeni izenzo zikarhulumente. Ukuba urhulumente uceba ukususa ilayisensi yomqhubi, ukususa iinzuzo zentlalo-ntle, okanye ukugxotha umntu othile kwindlu kawonke-wonke, umntu angafuna inkqubela efunekayo. Ukuba urhulumente ugqithisa umthetho ovala uhlobo oluthile lwentetho okanye onqanda isibini ekutshateni, ucelomngeni lusezantsi: umthetho uphazamisanakele ilungelo elingundoqo urhulumente angenakulithintela ngaphandle kokuzithethelela okunyanzelela. Ngoko ke u-Attoneys kufuneka achaze izimpikiswano zabo. [[FLT:]] [FLD] [FFF]]

Kubenzi benkqubo, umahluko utshintsha indlela ekwenziwa ngayo imithetho. Umthetho obeka umthwalo kwilungelo elisisiseko (njengovota okanye umtshato) kufuneka ulungiswe ngokumxinwa kwaye usebenzele intshukumisa. Umthetho odala nje inkqubo evumela ukuloba okanye ukwakha ucingo ufuna isiseko esiqinileyo kuphela. Ukwahlula imimandla emibini kunceda ekuphepheni ukunqanda ukuvaleka kakhulu kwaye uqinisekisa ukuba imiqobo yendalo ayisetyenziswa njengemiqobo yokukhusela izilwanyana.

Isiphelo

Inkqubo elindelekileyo kunye namalungelo aphantsi okuzimela amawele agcina inkululeko kumthetho-siseko waseMelika. Omnye uqinisekisa urhulumente ukuba udlala ngemithetho elungileyo xa elwa nomntu othile; omnye uphawula imida yoko urhulumente anokukwenza konke konke. Ngoxa inkqubo efunekayo inika isiqinisekiso sokuxela kwangaphambili kunye nokuziphendulela, umahluko okhoyo phakathi kwezi ngcamango zimbini ubalulekile, ukhuselwa ngokunzulu yinkululeko yobuqu engaphaya kwayo nayiphi na inkqubo ethile esemthethweni. Zombini iimfundiso ziyaqhubeka ziguquka, zibunjwe ziimeko ezintsha, zitshintsha amaxabiso esocicial eeties, kwaye zitshintsha iintanda-ntanda-bulumko zomthetho. Kumntu ofuna ukuqonda umahluko phakathi kwemiqatha le mbono mibini ibalulekileyo.