Ulwalamano oluphakathi korhulumente worhulumente kunye namazwe luchaza uphawu olukhethekileyo lwe-American umanyano. Entliziyweni yalo buhlobo kukho iBhili yamaLungelo, iseti yokhuseleko ekuqaleni enzelwe ukumisela igunya lorhulumente kuphela. Ngaphezu kwenkulungwane, ummi akanakucela ukuba umgaqo-siseko wesizwe wokwaphulwa korhulumente osemthethweni. Ukuguqulwa kolu hlelo libali lemfundiso ekhethayo yemfundiso yomanyano. Lo mgaqo, osekelwe kwiMgaqo-siseko we-145th Amendmentivement's Procession Clausces, umiss amalungelo athile angundoqo enziwe asebenza kumazwe. Uphuhliso lwawo lunyanzele ukutshintsha okunzulu kwindlela inkqubo kawonke kawonke, ukuphikisana, nokunyanzeliswa kwesizwe ukuqulukwano lwamalungelo angoorhulumente ngamnye orhulumente ongenakuqhekezwa yimeko-R.

Isiseko Sembali Nesaseziqu Zamandulo

Isakhiwo Samandulo: Ingxaki YeBarron

Indawo yokuqala yokuqonda intsebenziswano ekhethayo nguMphathi-Mphathi omkhulu uJohn Marshall uluvo oludibeneyo kwi- Barron v. Baltimore (1833). Kulo mzekelo, umnini wesikhululo wamangalela isixeko saseBaltimore ngokutshayela ukonakalisa ipropati yakhe ngaphandle kokunikela intlawulo nje, njengoko kwakufunwa nguMmiselo wesihlanu. Inkundla ePhakamileyo yalawula kuye, ibambe ukuba iBhili yamaLungelo yayinenjongo yokumisela kuphela urhulumente wesizwe, hayi amatyala. Esi sigqibo sabangela ikhamacabha: sasikhululekile ukungazihoyibhisi kukhuseleko olungundoqo lomthetho worhulumente lomthetho ngaphandle kokuba umgaqo wayo ungalwangalelwangagwetyelwanga. Oku kwahlala kutoliwe inguqulelo ehla ngeminyaka engama-90.

UMthetho - siseko We - 14: Idinga Nesithintelo

Ukwenziwa kwale mithetho i-14th Amendment ngowe-1868 yayikukusabela ngqo kobubi bemithetho eBlack Special kunye nokusilela koorhulumente borhulumente ukukhusela amalungelo amakhoboka asandul' ukukhululwa. ICandelo elinye loMgaqo-nkqubo liqulethe iirejista ezintathu ezigxekayo: amalungelo okanye ii-Immunion Clause, i-Ust Procesme Claus, kunye ne-Moncial Proce Protection Clausle.

Ityala leNdlu yokuDlala (1873)

[FLT] Ityala leNdlu yeNdlu yeNdlu ePhakamileyo [FLT]] , iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaba nethuba lokuqala lokuchaza amalungelo okanye i-Immunion Clause. Inkundla yabonakala igqibelele ngokugqibelelyo ukusebenzisela iBhili yamaLungelo kumazwe. Noko ke, umlinganiselo omncinane ka-5-4 wawubambelele kwelokuba igalelo kuphela lukhusele amalungelo ambalwa obumi besizwe (njengamalungelo okucela iBhunga okanye ukufikelela kwimijelo ye-agile yomthetho). Inkundla yafumana umahluko ocacileyo phakathi kobumi nobumi besizwe, ngokunempumelelo ikhupha amalungelo angundoqo esizwe. Esi sigqibo sexesha elizayo sinyanzelo sokuxhobisa i-ekisa i-Claussaillay (njengelungelo elifanelekileyo lokusebenzisa iimeko zesivumelwano sesivumelwano semithetho, namhlanje.

Ukuzalwa kokuNqanda okuKhethwayo: Umgangatho we Cardozo's

Imfundiso yale mihla yokuqukunjelwa kokhetho yaqala ukumila ekuqaleni kwenkulungwane yama-20. [FLT]] Gitrow v. New York[FLT]] [1925], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yathe yathelekelelwa okokuqala ukuba inkululeko yokuthetha nokucinezela yayiphakathi kwe "inkululeko yobuqu" ikhuselwe yi-'Uhlelo lobunzululwazi lobuKlassilaske kwingxaki yombuso. Nangona iNkundla ixhasa uGitlow's ngenxa yokubhukuqwa kukarhulumente, yavula ucango lwexesha elizayo.

Isiseko sobucukubhede bentanda-bulumko sokuzibandakanya kwacaciswa ngokupheleleyo nguJanjamin Cardozo [FLT]Palko v. Connecticut [1937]. Ikhadozo yala ingcamango "yokuququzelela okupheleleyo"(ukuthi uHlaziyo lweMiphetho yeshumi elinesine lweSindululo lusebenzise lonke lwamalungelo). Endaweni yoko, waseka ukuba kuphela elo lungelo "linikit kwingcamango yomyalelo" lafakwa nxamnye namazwe. Wahlula amalungelo afana necebo elisemthethweni eMelika. Ukuba umisela inkqubo engundoqo yokulawula i-" (njengentetho ekhululekile"enziwe" okanye "ivial" efana ne-gqweqweqwesi"). "umgangatho olungileyo" ulungele ukugweba "ukulawula umgaqo ngamnye osemthethweni.

ISixeko soNxibelelwano: Ukusuka ekuthetheni ngokukhululekileyo ukuya ekuthwaleni izixhobo

INkundla YaseWarren (1953 - 969)

Ngeli xesha isiseko sabekwa ngaphambili, iNkundla yaseWarren yakhawulezisa ngamandla isantya sokuququzelela. Eli xesha laguqula inkqubo kawonke-wonke yaseMerika ngokubhekiselele kwiqumrhu elikhulu lenkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho ngokusebenzisa ukhuseleko olunzulu kuRhulumente wamalungelo.

  • IsiHlalisi-sombululo se-FOM: .Oo [1961] yaquka umthetho wokususa, ifuna iinkundla zelizwe ukukhupha ubungqina obufunyenwe ngophendlo olungekho mthethweni kunye nokuxhuzula.
  • [[FLT: 0] IsiHlalisi soMgqibo soMphetho-moya:[ [FLT]] [[FULT:3] Gedonr[ [[FLT:] [[FLT:] [63] [63]] [iii-FLT] [iiiiiinani elifanelekileyo lokucebisa, elifuna iimeko zokunikezela amagqwetha amagqwetha akwimeko ezingquzulanayo.] [[FLT][11][11] [FLT]] [12] [FFFFF] [127] [127]] [evolg] [egate] [ethentiyokunene:[FFF]] [127]
  • [[NTL:0] FINTPGURE: Malloy v. Hogan [1964]) ukuquka ilungelo nxamnye nolwahlulo-lwesiqu.
  • IsiHlalisi-mda soMphetho-moya:[ Robinson v. California [1962]) yaquka ukwalela ingqeqesho nesohlwayo esingaqhelekanga.

Ukuthatha i-Suncan v. Louisiana, UJaji White ngokucacileyo wala "jot-for-jot" indlela, eyakusebenzisa umgangatho wejaji yequmrhu lesizwe kanye njengokuba ikhona. Endaweni yoko, iNkundla yamkela ulwamkelo "webhakhwe nephetshana", isebenzisa umgangatho jikelele wesizwe kodwa ivumela umahluko othile kwinkqubo. Le ngxoxo phakathi kwesicelo esipheleleyo nesombululo iyaqhubeka iphembelela indlela iinkundla ezichaza ngayo amalungelo adityanisiweyo.

INkundla Yanamhlanje: Ukwandisa Le mfundiso

Inkqubo yokukhetha icandelo ayiphelelanga kwiNkundla yaseWarren. Iye yaqhubeka kumashumi eminyaka akutshanje, ngokufuthi kwiindawo ezineengxabano ezinkulu zomgaqo-nkqubo kawonke-wonke.

McDonald v. Chicago (2010)

McDonald v. Chicago[FLT]], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yabambelela kwiNkundla yesibini yoLawulo lweMpahla-mda elungileyo ukugcina nokuthwala iingalo zoziquququququ zisebenza kumazwe. Eli tyala lasiphula uvalelo lweSithintelo somgubo wesandla seChicago Cacago laza lavula ngokukhawuleza ukhupho lwemeko olunzima kunye nemithetho yolawulo lwengingi. Uluvo lwesininzi, olubhalwe nguMgangatho, oluqinisekiswe ukuba "IMsebenzi wenkqubo ka-19495 IsiHlamGamgamganiso ubandakanya isiHlaziselo sesibini esiqwalaselweyo ekunene [[FLDip:4] esingulo.] Esi sigqibo sinyanzelwe phantsi komgaqo womthetho wolawulo olungqongqo.

Timbs v. Indiana (209)

Kwisigqibo esihambelanayo, [FLT] Timbs v. Indiana[FLT]] yaquka iSepmentive Restances Recons Claus. Inkundla yathi ukulahlekelwa kwemoto ye-$42,000 yeziyobisi kugqithise kakhulu. UJaji Ginsburg ubhala ukuba ekunene yimeko yethu yenkululeko eyayalelweyo" kunye "ukutshona kweyona nto iphambili kwimbali nesithethe sohlanga." Esi sigqibo sichaphazela ngokuthe ngqo inzuzo yemeko yokulahlekelwa, ifuna iziqumrhu zomthetho ukuqinisekisa ukuba inkqubo yabo ayingeni kwi-demodensi.

Amalungelo Awafakwanga

Nangona ifikelele kwinqanaba elibanzi, ukuququzelela okukhethiweyo akukhange kuquke lonke ulungiselelo lwamalungelo esizwe. Ezona zithintelo ziphawulekayo ziquka:

  • [[UMGAQO-MGAQO-MALI] UHLOMELO Lwesithathu: Ilungelo elichasene nequarter yamajoni alizange lifakwe.
  • IsiHlalisi sesihlanu: Imfuneko yetyala elikhulu labachopheli-tyala ayizange isetyenziswe kumaphondo. Amazwe amaninzi asebenzisa iindlebe zokuqala okanye iikopi zolwazi endaweni yoko.
  • IsiHlalisi seSekela: Ilungelo lokuchophela ityala lasekuhlaleni alifakwanga, livumela amazwe ukuba aphuhlise imigaqo yawo yasekuhlaleni.
  • [[NTL:0] UHlaziyo lwesibini: Ngelixesha ilungelo lokugcina nokuthwala iingalo lalidityaniswe McD, amandla athile angaphambili akhoyo (njengokwalela iifeloni ukuba nemipu) asafuneka aqhubekeke ngokucaciswa malunga nomlinganiselo wawo.

Esi sicelo sikhethiweyo sibonisa ukuba iNkundla iyaqhubeka ivavanya "isiseko" sasekunene ngalinye, igcina umahluko phakathi kwenkqubo karhulumente neyorhulumente apho ibona kufanelekile.

Impembelelo kuMthetho kaRhulumente kunye noMgaqo-nkqubo kaRhulumente

Ukusetyenziswa kweBhili yamaLungelo kumazwana asiyonkqubo engekho ngqiqweni engokwasemthethweni. Inyanzela ukuba kumiselwe izindlu zowiso-mthetho, iirhuluneli, kunye namasebe asekuhlaleni ukuba anamathele kwimilinganiselo engqongqo yesizwe. Oku kubangele iziphumo zenkqubo yekonkrithi kuyo yonke imimandla emikhulu yolawulo.

Okusesikweni Kwezaphuli - mthetho Notshintsho

Ukuqukwa kweMithetho yeSine, yesihlanu neyeSithandathu kuye kwabeka umthwalo onzima kumaphondo. Abamisi-mthetho baseburhulumenteni kufuneka bamisele imithetho exhasa iinkqubo zokukhusela uluntu, ilawule ukuncinwa kwamapolisa, nokuseka imilinganiselo ecacileyo yokufuna iimfuno.

  • Ukuphakamisa ukhuselo loluntu: Emva [[FT:2] Gedeon, amaziko ayefuneka ngokwemithetho-siseko ukunikezela ngecebiso elisemthethweni. Oku kwakhokelela ekudalweni koothunywashe bokhuselo lukawonke-wonke kunye nolwabiwo lwemiqathango yoqingqo-mali olubalulekileyo. Amazwe anjengo Florida ne New York ayaqhubeka ecacisa ngokubhekiselele ekubeni iinkqubo zawo zokhuselo lukawonke-wonke zixhaswa ngokufanelekileyo kusini na ukuhlangabezana nomgangatho osemthethweni woncedo lwecebo olusebenzayo.
  • [[NTLALA:0] Ukukhupha amatyala: imanda [ ifuna ukuba abarhanelayo baxelelwe ngamalungelo abo. Amazwana amaninzi afake i- izilumkiso kumthetho. Umthetho karhulumente malunga nokukhutshelwa kwemibuzo yemvume ngokufuthi uzama ukunikezela ngokucacileyo ngengxelo ecacileyo yokuthobela ezi mfuneko zomgaqo-siseko womthetho.
  • Imithetho yezomthetho enyanzelekileyo yokulawula imithetho ye-GPS, ukhangelo lwezobucala, kunye nokuqokelelwa kogcino-lwazi lweselfowuni kufuneka kuhambelane nemilinganiselo yeSine soMphetho-mva-mva omiswe yiNkundla ePhakamileyo. I-Ohio ingumzekelo womthetho wesizwe ohamba ngaphaya komgangatho worhulumente ukunikezela ngokhuseleko lwe-GPS.

Umgaqo-nkqubo Wemfundo Namalungelo Abafundi

ISichibiyelo sokuqala nesesine sinobukho obunamandla kwizikolo zikawonke-wonke zaseMelika, obuthintela amandla eebhodi zesikolo zikarhulumente.

  • Intetho yokwalatha: [[FT:2]] Tinker v. Des Moines Independent School Community District (1969) wasebenzisa uHlaziyo lokuqala kubafundi. Izikolo zephondo azinakukwazi ukunqumamisa abafundi ukuba bathethe ngokomfuziselo ngaphandle kokuba iphazamisa inkqubo yemfundo. Imithetho echaseneyo ne-brune kufuneka icetyiselwe ukunqanda ukuphazamisana nokuthetha okukhuselekileyo ngaphandle kwenzala esemthethweni yesikolo.
  • Imodeli Yoqhubekeko kwiSiyalo: [[FT:2] [[FLT:]] IGos v. Lopez (1975] idibanise iNkqubo elindelekileyo ka-Claus ukuze ifune isaziso kunye nokuva phambi komfundi angaxhonywa iintsuku ezingaphezulu kweshumi. Esi sigqibo sinyanzelelwayo sombuso neebhodi zesikolo ukubophelela iinkqubo zolawulo, ukuqinisekisa umgangatho osisiseko wobulungisa.
  • Ukukhangela kunye noSezire: New Jersey v. T.L. [85] wakholelwa ukuba amagosa esikolo kufuneka abe nokukrokra okusengqiqweni, kunokuba abe nesizathu esilindelekileyo, ukuphendla abafundi. Iinkqubo zikarhulumente ekuphengululeni isitshixo, uvavanyo lweziyobisi zeimbaleki, kunye nokufumana isikhumbuzi sentsimbi zonke zibotshelelwe kulo mgangatho.

Inkululeko Yonqulo Nezithethe Zilwa

Ukuququzelela ukuMiselwa koMphetho wokuqala noNgqomo oluNgahlawulelwayo luka-Celas kubekwe izindlu zowiso-mthetho zikarhulumente ezisesazulwini seemfazwe zenkcubeko.

  • Umthandazo weSithili kunye neMonuments: [[NT:] Engel v. Vitale [1962]) kunye Abhington uSithilikezi . Schempp[[FLT] [63] wasebenzisa umiselo Claus ukunqanda umthandazo owenziweyo kwizikolo zikawonke wonke. Imithetho karhulumente efuna ukuthunyelwa kweMithetho Elishumi kwizifundo ibethelelwe phantsi phantsi kwesi sakhiwo semfundo.
  • Isiko lokuSebenza elikhululekileyo lokuSebenza: [I-employment Division v. Smith [1990]) yabambelela ekubeni ubundilele, imithetho esebenzayo jikelele, ayiphuleli kuMgangatho we-Free Expressificial Claus, nokuba ixabe uxanduva lonqulo. Ukuphendula kogxeko-lwazi olubanzi, iBhunga lobuGcinezelo lwenkululeko (RRA), kwaye ngaphezu koomazwe angama-20 agqithisele umgangatho we-RFRAs. Le mithetho yombuso inika ukhuseleko olukhulu kwisenzo sikarhulumente kunemfutho womthetho-mthetho-siseko.
  • [[FLT: 0] Imali ePhakathi yeNtlanganiso yoTshukumo lonqulo: INkundla iguqule ukumiselwa kwayo ka-Claus jurisprudence malunga neengqikelelo zesikolo kunye noncedo lwesizwe. Umanyano lweCawa yamaLuthere-v. Comer [2017], iNkundla yathiyama ukuba ikhuphe imibutho yonqulo kwimibutho ekhoyo jikelele (njengendawo yokunikezela) ingqungquthela yenkonzo ye-Free Egconice Claskostee. Iiplas zikarhulumente kufuneka ngoku ziqinisekise ukuba iinkqubo zayo zokuxhasa inkxaso akucalulani ngoku ngokuchasene neenkqubo zonqulo.

Imida Yexesha Elizayo Neengxaki Zexesha Elizayo

IsiHlomelo Sesibini Emva Kokuphathwa Ngolunya

Ukufakwa kweSigqibo sesibini soMphetho-mva weMvulo kumisela iqonga lolwando olubalulekileyo .[FLT] iNew York State Rifle & Pistol Association v. Bruen[FL][4][FLT] [25] [2022] [202] [[FLT] BBBBB] , iNkunyuko ephakamileyo yabetha phantsi kweNew York York's "iphois" igcina isicwangciso somqhobe esifihlakeleyo kwaye ithathe indawo yovavanyo olutsha kwiimeko ezifunekayo ukubonakalisa imithetho emitsha engundoqo yemipupu, i-19 yemithetho yembali esekelwe kwimithetho yelizwe esetyenziswa ngurhulumente eshushu ngoku ngoku ngoku. Imeko enzima yemithetho esetyenziswayo inguwonke wonke esekelwe kulawulo olude kwiimeko oluthe .

Ubuxhakaxhaka Nohlaziyo Lwesine

Njengoko ubugcisa butshintsha, iNkundla ePhakamileyo iyaqhubeka ilungisa ukusetyenziswa koMphetho-mva wesi-4 kumazwe. [FLT]] Carplate v. United States [2018], iNkundla ibambelele kwelokuba urhulumente ufuna isiqinisekiso sokufumana imvume yokufumana indawo ye-data yeselfowuni, esebenzisa "ukulindela okufanelekileyo kwe-mgangatho" umgangatho wolwazi lwamanani. Oku kuchaphazela ngokuthe ngqo umthetho wemithetho ephathelelene nolawulo lwamanani. Imithetho karhulumente evumela ukugcinwa komthetho ukuba kungenelwe ipleyinti yelayisensi ezenzekelayo (ALPR), drones, okanye ulwazi lwezentlalo-ndaba-ndaba kufuneka luvumelane nomgangatho we-evounivervolive. I-Florida ye-Frictalogdition ingumzekelo womthetho osebenza kumgangatho womthetho ophantsi womthetho.

Amabhubesi Nemida Yenkululeko Ephantsi

Ukugqithisa kwe Roe v. ku . [Ii-Dobbs v. Jackson Amabhinqa 'Amalungu empilo'[[FLT]] [2022] imele esona sivumelwano siphawulekayo somtyalo wokuqhomfa sifakelwe ekunene ukususela ekumisweni kwemfundiso. Inkundla ibambelele kwelokuba ilungelo lokuqhomfa alisekelwenga kwimbali yohlanga okanye liphelele kwingcamango yenkululeko. Le "[FLT][FLT] [202] [202] ibuyisela umthetho wokuqhomfa komvolo kuphelelo kuphelelo.

[[NTLT: 0] Isigqibo siphakamisa amaDobbs abalulekileyo kwikamva lemfundiso. Ukuba amalungelo angakhutshwanga kwinkqubo elindelekileyo esubstanti anokususwa kwisohlwayo sokhuseleko lwesizwe aze abuyiselwe kumazwe, ngawaphi amanye amalungelo asengozini? UJaji Thomas, kwisivumelwano sakhe, abizwe ngokucacileyo ngeNkundla ukuba iphinde iqwalasele eminye imizekelo encinci, kuquka Gristold v. Connecticut[[FLT: 3] [iii] (ekunene) kwaye [FLT:] [FLT] uyakwazi ukuvala) ukubuyisela imvume yokungagqibeki kwetyala.[FLT:]

Ukunyanzeliswa Kwamalungelo Adityanisiweyo Nokunyanzelwa

Ukunyanzeliswa kwamalungelo aququzelelweyo amagosa karhulumente kuxhomekeke kakhulu ekufumanekeni konyango lukarhulumente. Isithuthi esiphambili soku singu 42 U.C. . . . ngo1901, esivumela abantu ukuba bamangalelwe ngamagosa asemthethweni ngenxa yokwaphula umthetho. Noko ke, imfundiso esungulwe ngokusemthethweni yokuthintelwa kwemiqathango isoloko iwakhusela amagosa embuso ukuba angawufuni umthetho ngaphandle kokuba aphule umthetho owe ngokusisigxilo. Abagxeki baphikisa ukuba ukhuseleko olufanelekileyo lujongela phantsi injongo yokuzikhusela ngokwawo ngokwawo ngokuwenza kube nzima ukuba amagosa aphendulelwe ngokuchasene nomthetho. Imithetho yomthetho iqashe ngokudlulisa imithetho elungele ukuthintelwa kwenkundla yezomthetho. I-Colorado, i-New York, i-New York, kunye ne-California baphume umthetho wokuzikhusela amalungelo alungele ukukhusela amalungelo asekuhlaleni, ngokunikwa kwemeko yemeko yemithetho yomthetho.

Isiphelo: Ulungelelwano Olunyamezelayo Lomanyano LwamaMerika

Imfundiso yokuququzelela ingumgaqo-siseko owathi wasebenzisa iBhili yamaLungelo. Iqinisekisa ukuba ummi waseTexas unelungelo lokuthetha ngokukhululekileyo elifana nelommi waseMaine. Ifuna ukuba igosa lamapolisa eKhalifoniya lithobele imiqathango yeSine soMmiselo-Mmiselo njengomphathi-mthetho. Inyanzelisa iibhodi zesikolo eNew York ukuba zihlonele amalungelo afanelekileyo afanayo namaziko karhulumente.

Impembelelo yalo kumgaqo-siseko kawonke wonke. Wonke umthetho wesizwe ngokuphathelele inkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho, imfundo, uqheliselo lonqulo, kunye nokuzimela wedwa umiselwe kwisiseko semfundiso. Imithetho yowiso-mthetho yezomthetho yezomthetho yezomthetho ukuze ithethelele imigaqo-nkqubo yayo echasene nemilinganiselo eqinileyo yamalungelo esiseko. Ngoxa ulungelelwaniso lwamandla phakathi korhulumente wesizwe kunye namazwe luqhubeka lutshintsha ngokuqulunqweniswa kweNkundla ePhakamileyo, umgaqo ongundoqo wokuqulungela inkululeko yaseMelika. Imela ukumiswa komgaqo-siseko wenkululeko engundoqo ayinakulawulwa yiminqweno yezinto ezinkulu zasekuhlaleni, iqinisekisa ukuba isithembiso sikaBhili-Rhulumente yamaLungelo siyaqhubeka sifikelela kumntu wonke, phantsi korhulumente ngamnye, phantsi korhulumente ngamnye.