Ukwazisa: Ukufikelela kweNkundla ePhakamileyo yaseUnited States

UbuGqibiso bokuqala bejaji, obukhe basetyenziswa kakhulu kwinkcazo yemfundo, buye baba ngumkhosi olawulayo kutoliko lwaseMelika − ingakumbi kwiinkundla zikarhulumente. Ngelixesha ingqwalasela kawonke-wonke ibhekisa kwicandelo lomgaqo-siseko le-U.S. Ukusetyenziswa kweNkundla ePhakamileyo ekuqiqeni kwenkcazo yendalo kwizigqibo ezifana iDiquality of Columbia v. Heller [2008], impembelelo yokuqala yobukhommostism ihamba nzulu kumhlaba wesizwe. Imithetho yomthetho elawula ingqungquthela, iintambo zolawulo, kunye neenkqubo zolawulo lwe-demokhrasiti, kunye nolawulo lwe-demokhrasiti. Eli nqaku lihlola indlela i-mthetho yomthetho-omatiko-o-siseko esineyonga ngayo, ii-mthetho-ogralitivement

Ukwahlula Umthetho Wangaphambili: Ucalucalulo Neengxubevange

I-activation ayiyonto ithetha into enye. Iquka iindlela ezininzi ezahlukileyo zokuchaza, zonke ezinesabelo sokuseka intsingiselo yesiseko se-ankile kwincam ethile yembali. Ezi ndlela zimbini ezinempembelelo ziyinjongo yokuqala yobukho bobukho bento [[[FLT: 1] kunye [FLT] ne yantlandlolo yentsingiselo yobuGcisa .

Intsingiselo kawonke-wonke yantlandlolo

Injongo ecacileyo yobuGcisa ibuza oko abafaki-freyithi okanye abalayishi benzelwe kona ngokulandela inkqubo xa beqeshiwe okanye besamkela ilungiselelo lomgaqo-siseko. Le ndlela ixhomekeke kakhulu kwiingxelo zembali ezifana neengxoxo zendibano, iiMasidili, kunye neengxoxo zabucala. Abahlalutyi baphikisa ukuba ukuqonda injongo enye, edityanisiweyo isoloko ingenakwenzeka, ingakumbi kwimizimba emininzi.

Uluntu oluqhelekileyo oluthetha intsingiselo yamagama , luxhaswa ngamanani afana noJaji Antonin Scalia kunye nomphengululi womthetho uRandy Barnett, endaweni yoko lubuza ukuba ngubani umntu osengqiqweni ngexesha lokwenza i-ratting ozakuqonda umbhalo ukuba uthetha. Le ndlela igxininisa intsingiselo eqhelekileyo yamagama kwaye iphephe ukuxhomekeka kwiinjongo ezifihliweyo. Namhlanje, intsingiselo yangaphambili kawonke-wonke-wonke luhlobo lobuBhobhishophu kumacala olawulo kunye nolawulo lwezwe.

Iinkundla zelizwe zamkela ngokuqhubekayo uhlalutyo lwentsingiselo yantlandlolo xa zitolika umgaqo-siseko wazo. Umzekelo, iLouisiana Ephakamileyo ikholelwa ukuba umgaqo-siseko wesizwe "umele utolikwe ngokwentsingiselo ecacileyo yamazwi awo njengoko eqondwa ngexesha lokumkelwa. Le ndlela ithintela ngokuphawulekayo indlela abagwebi belizwe abazama ngayo ukwandisa okanye ukulinganisela amalungelo abo.

Indima yomGaqo-siseko kaRhulumente kuManyano lwaseMelika

Umgaqo-siseko wesizwe usebenza njengesiseko somgaqo-siseko wamaMelika angaphezu kwe-330 ezigidi, ngokufuthi oqulethe ukhuseleko olunenkcukacha ezingakumbi kunomGaqo-siseko wesizwe. Ngokungafaniyo nomGaqo-siseko wase-U.S., oye walungiswa izihlandlo ezingama-7 kuphela, imimiselo karhulumente iyatshintshwa rhoqo-phinda-phinde-phinde-phinda-phinda (ngokunjalo) ngeembekiselo zomthetho-siseko, iintlanganiso zabemi, okanye iindibano zomgaqo-siseko. Le dynamism yenza umthetho-siseko ube lisiseko esichumileyo sengxoxo yoqobo.

Impembelelo yoqobo yempembelelo kumgangatho karhulumente ibalasele ngokukhethekileyo kuba abagwebi besizwe basoloko benandipha ububhetyebhetye obukhulu kunabagwebi besizwe ukuchaza umgaqo-siseko wabo ngokwabo. Inkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. ibambelele ngokuphindaphindiweyo ukuba amaphondo anganika ukhuseleko olukhulu lwamalungelo omntu ngamnye phantsi komgaqo-siseko wawo kunaleyo ifunwa ngumGaqo-siseko wesizwe (jonga Michigan v. Long], 463, U.S 103, 1983). Ngenxa yoko, ijaji yesizwe esebenzisa indlela yoqobo yomgaqo-mthetho isenokufikelela kwisigqibo esahlukileyo ngokuphathelele umgangatho we-amenformationsment kunejaji yemithetho esetyenziswa ngurhulumente esebenzisa indlela efanayo kwilungiselelo lorhulumente. Oku kwenza umgangatho otyebileyo woqikelelo lwezi lokuqikelelo lwakuqala lwayo lokuqala loburhulumente.

Indlela Ukuyila Okuyichaphazela Ngayo Imigaqo Yokwaneliswa Kwemiqathango Karhulumente

UbuGqibesheli buchaphazela lonke iqondo lomjikelo womgaqo-siseko wobomi: ukuqokelela, ukuvota, uhlolo lwetyala kunye nokutolikwa okulandelayo.

Ukuzama Ukunyamezela Uqeqesho Lwamandulo

Abaququzeleli bomthetho kunye nabaxhasi abaphambili abajonge uhlolo lwezobulungisa boqobo kufuneka balungise imizobo ngokuchanekileyo. Ulwimi olugobileyo lumema iinkundla ukuba zisebenzise iintsingiselo zoluntu lokuqala, ezinokuphambuka kwiinjongo zomgaqo womzobi. Umzekelo, ukuba i-collet ifuna ukuseka ilungelo elitsha , isatha, "ekunene kwindawo ecocekileyo"" iinkundla zokuqala ziza kuhlola oko ibinzana elithetha kuko kuwonke wonke ngexesha lokufumana imvume, hayi oko kuthenjiswa yiloo nto intsingiselo yenkqubo. Olu qeqesho lukhuthaza ukuba kucace mhlophe, ukulungiselela i-ankithanga ekwimbali.

Ingxubusho Yezejaji Ngaphantsi Kwemibutho Yamandulo

Xa iinkundla zikarhulumente zihlola ukusebenziseka kotshintsho, ubuStatus bunika isiseko sokufumana enoba ukulungisa kuyangqubana na nombhalo okhoyo womgaqo-siseko. Umgaqo-siseko omninzi worhulumente uqulathe "intsebenziswano" iingxelo ezilinganisela imixholo ekuthi inguquko ithatyathwe. Umzekelo, izilungiso eziye zalulaza ukuthoba uhlobo "lwempulaniso" oluqinisekiswe ngu-U.S. umGaqo-siseko ungabethwa phantsi. Abagwebi bokuqala baza kubuza ukuba ngaba intsingiselo yokulungisa intsingiselo, njengoko kuqondwa kwinqikelelo, ukuvala loo malungiselelo abekwe phantsi.

Ubuqaqoba buchaphazela nendlela iinkundla ezilujonga ngayo ucelomngeni lwe-procedect. Olunye umgaqo-siseko worhulumente ufuna ukuba utshintsho lugcinwe kumbandela omnye. Abagwebi bezoqobo baza kukhangela kwintsingiselo engokwembali "yomxholo omnye" ngexesha umgaqo-siseko wesizwe wamkelwa, kunokuba usebenzise imigangatho yolawulo yale mihla. Oku kungaphumela ekuzithobeni kakhulu okanye okungaphantsi kwindlu yowiso-mthetho, kuxhomekeka kwintsingiselo yokuqala yolwazi lukarhulumente.

Uhlolisiso Lwetyala: Imfundiso Yoqobo Esetyenziswa Ngaphesheya KweMerika

Ukuzekelisa impembelelo esebenzayo yobukho bendalo kwizilungisi zomgangatho wesizwe, siqwalasela imizekelo emithathu ebalulekileyo esuka kumazwe ahlukeneyo.

EKhalifoniya: Ukutshata 8 Nentsingiselo Yokuqala Yomtshato

Ngo-2008, abavoti baseCalifornia bagqithisa iProcessing 8, inyathelo lokulungisa umgaqo-siseko wesizwe lokuchaza umtshato njengokuphela komntu nebhinqa. Xa inguquko yacetyiswayo . uPerry v. Schwarzeger (ngokwexesha elizayo ]] i-Hallolsworworworworth v. Perry]), omabini amacala abhenelisa iimpikiswano zoqobo. Abaxhasi baphikisa ukuba intsingiselo yembali "umtshato" ngexesha lokuqala le-1849 lomgaqo-siseko yayithetha into engaqhelekanga. Abachasi bechasa intsingiselo ye-Clauslaus yemeko yesizwe esekelwe kwimbonakalo yezobukyubhini. Inkundla yephondo yephondo yephondo lesizwe neyongamele i-US.

Iinkundla zaseKhalifoniya zisandul' ukusebenzisa ukwenziwa kobukho bendalo kumatyala abandakanya ulungiso lomthetho. Abantu v. Buza (2017), iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaseKhalifoniya yala ukusebenzisa uhlalutyo olungqongqo loqobo kwiProgram 9 (Umthetho kaMarsy), kodwa ingqiqo yokuqala yavela ekuphikisaneni kwembono ethandabuzekayo yokungaguquguquki kwendlela yokuqonda into efunekayo.

Florida: Ilungelo likaRhulumente lokuHlola neNtlanganiso

Ngo-2014, abavoti beFlorida bamkela isiHlamlisi 1, esathi sanika ilungelo lomGaqo-siseko lokuzingela nesokuloba. Xa kamva kwavela ukubekwa kwetyala ukuba oku kulungiswa kwalimisela igunya lesizwe lokulawula izilwanyana zasendle, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaseFlorida yasebenzisa imigaqo esisiseko. Inkundla yahlola ukulungiswa kombhalo, isishwankathelo sebhola, kunye nezibhengezo ezisuka kwiphulo lokufumana oko umvoti ofanelekileyo anokukuqonda ukupheliswa kokuzingela ngo-2014. Inkundla yagqiba kwelokuba ilungelo lokuzingela nokuloba aliyithinteli imimiselo esengqiqweni ejoliswe ekulondolozweni. Le meko ibonisa indlela ukwenziwa kokuqala okunokumcinezela ngayo umlinganiselo wokuzinzo olusandula ngokuwuthobela ngokulingwa kokuziqonda kwayo kwembali kunokuba ivumele ukuguqulelwa kwemithetho ebanzi.

Louisiana: Isigqibo Sebhodi Yesikolo SaseParish

Inkundla yasebenzisa intsingiselo yeSikolo seMimandla saseParis v. Urhulumente [20] [20], iLouisiana Ephakamileyo ivavanya ukuba ukulungiswa komgaqo-siseko wesizwe odala intlawulo entsha yenkxaso yemali yayalela intsingiselo yokuqala yomgaqo-siseko elungeleleneyo. Inkundla yasebenzisa intsingiselo yangaphambili kawonke-wonke, ukukhangela isichazi-magama neengxelo zemali ukusuka kwindibano yesiseko somGaqo-siseko. Ekugqibeleni yathi ibambelele ekubeni ukupheliswa kwemithetho-siseko akukhange kungqubanisene nentsingiselo yokuqala yentsingiselo "ye-gramenti" ebhekiswe kwimiqathango yonyaka ekuthintelweni kwemali, hayi ekuvalweni kweqhina elide. Esi sigqibo savumela ukumiswa kwemali ukuba kumiswe imo-mali yexesha elizayo kodwa kumele kulungelene nokuqondwa kwemiqatha kwemiqatha yexesha elizayo.

Ukuphikisa Nokugxeka Ubuhlanga Kumgangatho KaRhulumente

Phezu kwayo nje impembelelo yayo ekhulayo, ukukholelwa kubukho bukaThixo kusenokugxekwa ngokunzulu xa kujongwa ukuba kulungiswe umGaqo-siseko.

Umthetho wedemokhrasi noGawulayo weStar Desis

Abahlalutyi bathi ubuGawulayo buthoba uthanda kwedemokhrasi yabavoti ngokuqakamisa intsingiselo yomgaqo-siseko ngomzuzu odlulileyo. Ukuba ukutshintshwa kudluliswa kukungaguquguquki okukhulu kwabavoti ukuphendula iingxaki zale mihla. Ngokufana nocalucalulo okanye ukuwohloka kwemekobume, ugwebi wamandulo onyanzelisa ukupheliswa kwe-18 okanye i-19 yentsingiselo ye-ocestermentation. Imithetho yemithetho yesiseko ye-injini ingenza ngxaki ngokuchanekileyo ekutshintsheni injongo yoluvo. IJaji uWilliam J. Brennan Jr. Ngokudumile ibizwa ngokuba yi-alism "arrocapence ethobekileyo," kwaye okokuba isebenza ngamandla kumgangatho wesizwe, apho imiqathango yemithetho ye-19 ilungiselelwe ukuguqula uluvo lukawonke-wonke.

Ngaphezu koko, ubuqaqoba bungangqubana nomzekelo wenkundla yeli lizwe. Iinkundla ezininzi ziqulunqa amashumi eminyaka ekwahlulelwa kuwo umthetho ochaza amatyala kwimimiselo yazo. Ukuba inkundla ngequbuliso itshintshela kwinkqubo yobukhokho bendalo, isenokuzinziswa ngokuphandle kwizinto, kwisivumelwano, nakumthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho. Imfundiso yokuhlola i-spous decisis inika uzinzo oluthile, kodwa abagwebi bokuqala badla ngokuphikisa ukuba imizekelo ephosakeleyo kufuneka ipheliswe.

Iingxaki Kwintsingiselo Yokuqala

Kwanakwingcamango yemvelaphi yantlandlolo, kukho ukungavumelani okunzulu ngendlela yokufumana intsingiselo yasekuqaleni. Imbali yomgaqo-siseko karhulumente isoloko ichazwa kakubi xa ithelekiswa neengxelo zikarhulumente. Iindibano ezininzi zorhulumente zaqhutywa ngomGaqo-siseko ngenkulungwane ye-19, kwaye iingxoxo zazo azipapashwanga okanye azitshatyalaliswanga. Le mikhosi icacileyo ilawula imigaqo-siseko ukuze ixhomekeke kwisichazi-magama, amaphephandaba, kunye neengxoxo zomthetho eziqhelekileyo, ezithi zikhethwe ngokuxhasa ukuchasana.

Ukuqhelaniswa namalungelo

Mhlawumbi eyona nto iphambili ixhalabisayo kukukwazi kokuqala ukuhlalisana namalungelo amatsha. Xa ukulungisa kudala ngokucacileyo ilungelo lenoveli `njengelungelo lokuzimela wedwa kumgaqo-siseko wezwe'. Abaquluneli kufuneka bagqibe ukuba oko kulungileyo "intsingiselo yokuqala" kulinganiselwe koko kwabonwayo ngo1972 okanye ukuba ulwimi olubanzi lombhalo lucelelwe ukuguqula. Ezinye iindlela zobuGcisa, njengoJaji Amy Barrett, ziyavuma ukuba amalungiselelo athile, njengalawo athintelayo "cruel nesohlwayo engaqhelekanga," ayakhele ngokunokwenzeka kokuguquka ngenxa yokuba iintsingiselo zabo zakuqala zithetha ngemilinganiselo etshintshayo. Kodwa le ngxoxo yangaphakathi malunga [[FLT:] indlela yoqobo ye-INT] ihlala ithenjiwe, kwaye yahluliwe kunye nemithetho yetyala.[FT][2]

Ikamva Lobuqalu Kumgangatho Karhulumente

Izimvo eziliqela zicebisa ukuba impembelelo yoqobo kutshintsho lwemeko yomgaqo-siseko wesizwe iza kukhula kuphela kwiminyaka ezayo. Okokuqala, iFederalist Society kunye nemibutho efanayo iqeqesha ngokukhutheleyo abagwebi borhulumente kunye noomabhalane bezomthetho kwindlela yoqobo. Iinkqubo zemfundo yezeejaji ngoku ziquka iintlanganiso zentsingiselo kawonke-wonke, kwaye iinkundla ezininzi eziphakamileyo zeli lizwe zipapashe ii-opions ezikhankanya uphando lwantlalo.

Okwesibini, ukunyuka kwemibutho "ethandwayo yomgaqo-siseko" `njengemigudu yomgangatho karhulumente ukubiza iQumrhu V) isoloko iquka ubugcisa boqobo obuthetha ngokubuyisela amandla kumaphondo nabantu. Le ntshukumo iphikisa ukuba utshintsho lomgaqo-siseko kufuneka lucwangciswe ukubuyisela ukuqonda kokuqala komgaqo-siseko karhulumente.

Okwesithathu, izikhululo zowiso-mthetho zikarhulumente zifunwa ngokukhulayo yimithetho-siseko yazo ukunikezela "ukubekwa kwenjongo" okanye "ukufumana iinjongo" xa kufakwa iinkcazelo. La maxwebhu asoloko equka uhlalutyo lwembali olusetyenziselwa ukukhokela utoliko lwexesha elizayo lobuqaqobha. Umzekelo, iTexas Legislation ifake iiphetshana embali ezininzi ukudibanisa iinkcazelo ezithelekelelwayo ngokuphathelele amalungelo empahla kunye nenkululeko yezamayeza, inethemba lokutshixa kwiintsingiselo ezithile zantlalo.

Noko ke, iqhinga alivavanywanga. Amaqela aqhubekekayo aqalisa ukuvelisa iindlela zokucacisa ezikhuphisanayo ``njenge'indlela ephila ngomgaqo-siseko" okanye "imigaqo-siseko elungileyo yoluntu""" ngokuphikisana ngcono nokuhlalisa iimfuno zale mihla ngaphandle kokwaphulwa ngokupheleleyo kokubhaliweyo nembali. Iinkundla zelizwe kumazwe aluhlaza, anjenge New York neWashington, aye akhabalela ukusebenzisa ubungqongqo kwaye endaweni yoko axhomekeke kwimilinganiselo ejikelezayo okanye uphinda-phinde uphando olulungeleleneyo xa kuvavanywa iindiso.

Isiphelo: Ubuntsusa njengeSithili esiQhelwayo neSizwe esiQhaganyisiweyo

UbuGawulayo buye bangqinelana ukuba buyinkqubo enamandla neyamanyeneyo yokulungisa intsingiselo yomgaqo-siseko wecandelo. Ukugxininisa kwayo kwiintsingiselo zembali kugunyaziso lwabaqhubi bezolawulo, uhlolo-mthetho olukhokelayo, kunye nokunika ulwimi oluqhelekileyo kwingxoxo engokwasemthethweni. Kodwa ikude kwimfundiso ezinzileyo okanye eyamkelekileyo emhlabeni wonke. Iinkundla zelizwe ziyaqhubeka zizama ukulwa nobunzima obusebenzayo bokufumana intsingiselo yokuqala, ukuxakeka phakathi kombhalo kunye nedemokhrasi, kunye nokufuna ukutshintsha umthetho wesiseko ukuze kuguqulelwe iimeko ngaphandle kokulahla umthetho.

Ekugqibeleni, impembelelo yobuBhodisi bokuqala kumthetho-siseko wesizwe ibonisa ukuxinana okunzulu kulawulo lwaseMelika: umnqweno wokuzinzisa, nowokulinganisela ngokuchasene nemfuneko yomthetho othambileyo, osabelayo. Njengoko imimiselo yomthetho-siseko itshintshwa ukusingatha yonke into ukusuka kumalungelo okuvota ukuya kubuchule obungeyoyamvelo, isiseko soqobo siya kuhlala siphakathi-----a kwaye sikhuphisana ngokushushu ukucuphisana kwala maxabiso akhuphisanayo. Ukuqonda le ntanda-ntanda-bulumko kubalulekile kuye nabani na ofuna ukuba nenxaxheba kumsebenzi oqhubekayo womgaqo-siseko wesizwe.