ISicwangciso somGaqo-siseko soLawulo lwezeMali

UMgaqo-siseko weUnited States asingomgaqo-siseko wezobupolitika nje; liliwa eliphambili apho inkqubo yezoqoqosho yelizwe iyonke ihlala khona. Ngokuchaza amagunya karhulumente wesizwe, ukuchaza imida yegunya lesizwe, nokubeka isiseko samalungelo esiseko, umGaqo-siseko wadala izibonelelo ezisemthethweni zorhwebo, ezorhwebo, kunye nenkqubo yephondo ukuze ichume. Ukusuka kwiNgqungquthela yokuqala yeFiladelphia ukuya kwiimfazwe zeNkundla ePhakamileyo yale mihla kwiintengiso zamanani, amalungiselelo omGaqo-siseko kwintengiso nemithetho yezoqoqosho aqhubeke enziwa yimeko yezoqoqosho yaseMelika. Ukuqonda esi sakhiwo sibalulekile ekuqondeni indlela iUnited States eyaqala ngayo ukuvela kwisivumelwano esizimeleyo soburhulumente bezoqoqosho kumazwe aphakamileyo.

Urhwebo lweClaus: I-injini yeGunya likaRhulumente

IChwetheza uClaus, efunyenwe kwiGatya I, iCandelo lesi-8, uClause, unika iNgqungquthela amandla "okwalathisa urhwebo nezizwe zasemzini, kunye namaZwe aliqela, kunye nezizwe zaseIndiya. Esi sigwebo sibonakala silula sibangele ukunikezelwa kwemiqathango okungaphezulu kwaye sandisa amandla karhulumente ngaphezu kwayo nayiphi na enye ilungiselelo lomGaqo-siseko. Ngexesha lokulawula intengiso, igalelo elijoliswe ekupheliseni ukuphelisa iimfazwe zentengiso kunye nemiqobo ephazamisa ukrufefezi. Amazwe ebenemisebenzi emikhulu yokunqumla imida yawo, ukukhukula ngokunelisa okunelisayo kwezoqoqosho. Ngokunika iBhunga lomthetho-onke ukulawula ushishino lwezoshishino, umGaqonga wesizwe.

Iinkcazelo Zangaphambili Nenkundla YaseMarshall

IJaji enkulu uJohn Marshall yaqinisa ububanzi borhwebo lukaClaus kumzekelo wophawu lwenqanawa Gibbons v. Ogden (1824), eyabulala isikhephe somphunga saseNew York esasiphazamisana nohambo ngenqanawa. Marshall wabambelela ekubeni "ummerce" ungaquki nje ukutshintshisana ngezinto ezikhoyo kodwa kwanohlobo lorhwebo. Esi sigqibo samisela elo gunya lorhulumente kushishino lwezoshishino lwamazwe lingumphaza owe-pala, i-intanethi ye-intanethi.

Kwinkoliso yenkulungwane ye-19, iChoodole Claus yasetyenziswa ekususeni imiqobo kurhwebo lwamazwe ahlukeneyo, hayi ukunika umthetho wesizwe wokuyila. United States v. C. Night Co. (1995], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yasebenzisa umahluko phakathi korhwebo nokwenza, ilawula ukuba uMthetho weSherman oThenti - Treaty awusetyenziswa kumgangatho wokusulungekiswa kweswela ngenxa yokuba umatshini wawungumsebenzi wasekuhlaleni. Le mbono imxinene yayibala de uDetho lokuLaza okuKhulukileyo kwanyanzela ukuguquka okuphambili kutoliko lomGaqo.

Ukwenziwa Okutsha Nokwanda Kwegunya Lomkhosi

Ingxaki yezoqoqosho yee-1930 yaqhubela uMongameli Franklin D. Roosevelt's iinkqubo zeNew Deal, ezandisa kakhulu umthetho karhulumente wezoqoqosho. Ekuqaleni, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yawisa umthetho ongundoqo, njengeNational Industrial Revelotion Act Schechter Poult Corp. v. United States[FLT] [1935] [1935], elawula ukuba umthetho ulawula ushishino lwezoshishino lwamazwe. Noko ke, emva kokuba iSisongelo seNkulwano se-RTS, iNQumrhu sithelekelele kwimicimbi emikhulu yezoshishino ze-omatilo-RB. Jones & Laulglin.[FLT] [193] [193], ixhasa i-National Systems Activesments Activesss orceality kwimignethi ye-octives ezingundoqo ze-ooooooooooooooooooctivess

Olu "luvavanyo olukwiziphumo ezingaqhelekanga" lwaba ngumgangatho omtsha, ukuvumela iKhomfama ukuba ilawule nawuphi na umsebenzi, kwiAggreat, eyayinomphumo wezinto eziphathekayo kwizoqoqosho lwesizwe. Kamva iNkundla yandisa le ngqiqo kwezolimo (] Wickard v. Filburn, 1942), apho yalawula ukuba umlimi okhula ingqolowa yeenkuku zakhe zikhukhukhuni abekwe phantsi kokhuseleko lwemeko-meko-ntle yezoqoqosho, xa echaphazele unikezelo kunye nexabiso lengqolowa ezweni lonke. Esi sigqibo saphawula uphawu lwamanzi oluphezulu lwegunya lorhwebo luka Claus Claus, sisenza umthetho wesizwe osuka kumalungelo abantu ukuya kukhuseleko lwemeko lwezoqoqosho.

Imida Yorhwebo Yale Mihla: Lopez, Morrison, neNFIB

Kusukela kwiminyaka yee-1990, iNkundla ePhakamileyo engqongqo yaqalisa ukubeka imida yangaphandle kwi-Chwethems Claus. United States v. Lopez [1995], iNkundla yabetha phantsi iGun-Free School Comments Act ngenxa yokuba ukuba ukuba nesixhobo sompu esikufuphi nesikolo sasingeyomisebenzi yezentengiselwano kwaye asizange sichaphazele urhwebo lwamazwe. Eli yayilixesha lokuqala kwiminyaka engama-60 lokuba iNkundla ityhala i-omatilithi ye-Clasko. Ngokufanayo, [[FLT.2] .[FLT.] [2] [2]

Ummiselo obalulekileyo wakutshanje we- IFomatility ye-Independent Business v. Sebelius (2012), apho iNkundla yaqwalasela ukuba ngumgaqo-siseko woMthetho wolawulo we-Affordible. IJaji enkulu uJohn Roberts, ebhalela uninzi, yabambelela ekubeni iBhunga lezentengiselwano aligunyazi ukuba linyanzelele abantu ukuba bathenge i-inshorensi yempilo. Amandla okulawula urhwebo awaquki amandla okudala urhwebo ngokunyanzela abantu ukuba bangene emarikeni. Esi sigqibo simisela umda omeleleyo: ICall ayinakusebenzisa uClaus ukugunyazisa umsebenzi wezoshishino ongakadekiyo.

Umanyano Nokulungelelana Kwamandla Ezoqoqosho

Inkqubo yoMgaqo-siseko yolawulo lwamagunya esizwe inika igunya elipheleleyo kwimicimbi yezoqoqosho yasekuhlaleni, kuquka intengiso yezorhwebo, irhafu, ukusetyenziswa komhlaba, kunye nokugcinwa komsebenzi. Ugcino loMgaqo-nkqubo weshumi lamagunya onke angekhoyo kumazwe anikwe iUnited States. Kwiminyaka engaphezu kwamakhulu amabini, le candelo liye lavelisa uxinzelelo olunamandla olubumba inkqubo yezoqoqosho kumgangatho ngamnye.

Urhwebo Olushushu UCelas

Kwanaxa iBhunga lingathathi nxaxheba, i-Choomer Claus inokuba nesiphumo esingu "demant" esithintela imithetho karhulumente ekhetha okanye engekho semthethweni kurhwebo lwamazwe. Le mfundiso yejaji-eyenzelweyo iyalela ukumisela umthetho wokukhusela ovumela amashishini angaphandle kwelizwe akhuphisanayo. iDoloktha yasePhiladelphia v. INew Jersey[FLT] [[12.1]], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yawisa umthetho oweyo owe-New Jersey oweyisa ukuvalwa kwenkunkuma eshini, ibambe ukuba urhulumente akanakucalula ngokuchasene norhwebo oluphakathi kwezobume ukuze acombulule iingxaki zayo. Ngokunjalo, iNkuNkuhlela yaseNew York yalquqululela umthetho othengwayo iwayini efumaneka ngokunexabiso elibi, ukufumana imvume ephantsi karhulumente, ithenjiweyo.

IDorment Commerce Claus isele iyisixhobo esinamandla solawulo olucelw'umthetho welizwe olulucelomngeni. Amatyala akutshanje aye abandakanya imfuno zorhwebo lobisi, imiqathango ye-intanethi yee-ofisi zokufaka iincwadi zokuhambisa iintengiso zekhompyutha, kunye nerhafu kwintengiso yamanani. Njengoko i-e-commerce iqhubeka ikhula, iDormant Commerce Claus iza kuba sembindini wokugqiba enoba amaphondo angamisela imimiselo eyahlukeneyo kwiinkampani ezisebenza kwii-patroli zikarhulumente.

Umgaqo-nkqubo woMgaqo-nkqubo weNtlalo-ntle

UMgaqo-siseko ukwabeka imiqathango ebalulekileyo kumagunya orhulumente nerhafu. Irhafu yomanyano kufuneka ifaniswe kulo lonke ilizwe (Icandelo 8, u-Clause 1), kwaye irhafu engqalileyo kufuneka yabelwe phakathi kwamazwe ngokwemiba-bemi .A eyakhokelela ekumkelweni koMvumelwano weSine-16 weSinethi ngowe-1913, eyagunyazisa irhafu karhulumente. EUnited States, nayo, ayivumelekanga ekuhlawuleni irhafu okanye ekurhwebeni ngaphandle kwemvume yokurhweba (I, ICandelo 10, ICandelo lika-Claus 2) nakwimisebenzi ye-levy kwinqanawa engena kumazibuko ayo.

Isigqibo seNkundla Ephakamileyo kwi- South Dakota v. Wayfair, Inc. [2018]) ngokuphawulekayo ukuqokelelwa kwerhafu karhulumente. Kwiminyaka engamashumi eminyaka, iNkundla ibambelele kwelokuba amatyala anokunyanzela amashishini akwindawo ekwakhiwe kuyo irhafu. Kodwa Wayfair, iNkuwo ishenxise loo mgangatho, iqonda ukuba umthetho we-intanethi ye-intanethi wanika abathengi uncedo olungafanelekanga kwizitena ezikweni zemali nezomfudu. Ngoku kunokuthi kufuneka athengise abathengisi-mali-mazwe ukuba baqokelele kunye nentengiso kwintengo ezinikezelwe abahlali babo, ibonelele inkqubo elula, engekho semthethweni, ediscccom, ilawula inkqubo yezoqoqosho ne-earcom yelizwe entsha.

Amalungelo empahla, izimvo, kunye neNkqubo elindelekileyo

UmGaqo-siseko ukhusela impahla kunye nezivumelwano zokwakha imekobume ezinzileyo ukwenzela utyalo-mali kunye norhwebo. IsiHlanzi seNkqubela sesihlanu sikwalela ukuthathwa kwempahla yabucala ukuze isetyenziswe nguwonke wonke ngaphandle kwembuyiselo nje. IsiHlanziso seshumi elinesine sikwandisa olu khuselo kumsebenzi worhulumente kwaye siqinisekisa ukuba onke la malungiselelo aqinisekisa ukuba amashishini axhomekeke kukhuseleko lwempahla yawo nokugcinwa kwezivumelwano zawo.

Umfundisi KaClaus

Inqaku I, Icandelo 10, u-Claus 1 akavumeli ukuba athintele ukuthomalalisa imbopheleleko yezivumelwano. Kwirepublic yamandulo, eli binzana lalibalulekile ekukhuseleni abo batyalayo kwimithetho karhulumente ezama ukukhulula amatyala. Noko ke, njengoko iNkundla ePhakamileyo yavumela ukumiswa kwemithetho evumela imithetho ethintelayo yokukhusela impilo kawonke-wonke, ukhuseleko, okanye intlalo-ntle. [[FLT: 0] Ekhaya i-Loan Asn. v. Blaisell [1934]), iNkubonelo ixhasa umthetho wetyala lika-Minnesovis oweyo ngexesha loxinzelelo oluphezulu, iqikeleze iqikeleze ukuba igunya lesizwe lokukhusela inzala kuvumelwano. Olu lungelenelo lwesivumelwano.

Ukuthatha Nokulungisa Izoqoqosho

Ukuthatha i-Provies Claus kufuna urhulumente ukuba ahlawule imbuyiselo xa ethatha ipropati yangasese. Kodwa imimiselo enciphisa ixabiso lempahla ingalingana nokuthatha i-"gas" ukuba ihambe kude kakhulu. Pennsylvania Coal. v. Mahon [1922] [umthetho], uMagwebi Holmes uchaza ngokuphandle ukuba ukuba ukuba umthetho utshabalalise ixabiso lempahla, kufuneka uhlawulelwe. [[FLT:] kutshanje], i-pectalvalval Coal. i-v. iBhunga lomzantsi we-Carol [[FLT] [FLD:3]] [1992] [195] [195], ikholelwa ukuba zonke izinto eziluncedo zezoqoqosho zisetyenziswe, ngaphandle kokuba imigaqo yomthetho imele isetyenziswe kwimimiselo yemithetho yangaphambili.

Imigaqo yomGaqo-siseko kumgaqo-nkqubo wezoqoqosho wanamhlanje

Namhlanje, umthetho womgaqo-siseko uyaqhubeka udibana phantse nayo yonke imimandla yezoqoqosho, ukusuka kwimigangatho yemisebenzi ukuya kukhuseleko lwemekobume ukuya kurhwebo lwezobugcisa. Ukuqonda olu nxibelelwano kubalulekile kubenzi benkqubo, iinkokeli zezoshishino nakubemi.

Ukusebenza Nomthetho Womsebenzi

Imithetho yeSebe elilawula umsebenzi, kuquka iSigqeba seMigangatho se-Fair Labor Act (ingeniso encinane nexeshana), uMthetho weNational Labor Relations (ukuqokelela amalungelo), kunye neSihloko se-VII soMthetho wamaLungelo eWorkal, yonke ishiye iintlawulo kwiChwetheting Clause. iNkundla ePhakamileyo iye yaxhasa le mithetho njengegunya elisebenzayo leBhunga leNkqumrhu leMicitho yezezoqoqosho elichaphazela umsebenzi wezentengiselwano yezentengiselwano. Kodwa ke, i-othek amagosa anegunya elibalulekileyo kwimicimbi yemisebenzi, njengentlawulo lwabasebenzi, i-inshorensidensi yokungabikho umsebenzi, kunye nokhuseleko lwemisebenzi yabasebenzi belizwe elinorhulumente (umz., nokuba ngabaqhubi be-Uber abasebenzi okanye abasebenzi abazizihambelayo) bayimibuzo yemithetho yesizwe, njengoko imithetho yemithetho yesizwe efana neyahluke kweyaseKhali ye-Khali yaseKhalifonini yaseKhali.

Umgaqo-nkqubo wokusingqongileyo

I-Ndebe yokuKhuselwa kweNkundla ePhakamileyo (EPA) ifumana uninzi lwegunya layo lolawulo kwi-Chwethems Claus, njengoko ungcoliso ludla ngokunqumla imigca yezombuso. UMthetho we-Ceather Air, Clean Water Act, kunye ne-Estested Species Act konke kuye kwaxhaswe phantsi kovavanyo olunamandla lweziphumo. Kodwa iNkundla ePhakamileyo ibeke imida: uwino lwe-Virginia v. E[FLT][FLD][1] [202] [202], iNkundleko yeNkumandla e-EPA yokufaka imilinganiselo yokukhupha amandla ezityalo phantsi kwe-"imfundiso, ifuna ukuthetha ngokucacileyo ukuba kucelwe izigqibo lwezoqoqosho okanye lwezopolitiki. Esi sigqibo se-Ecostalsclasssss esibanzi asinakuyisebenzisa ngaphandle kwemiqatha.

Urhwebo Lwamanani Ne-Intanethi

I-Intanethi sisixhobo somGaqo-siseko. Amazwe azama ukulawula iinkalo zezoqoqosho lweziko lezorhwebo, kwaye uMsebenzi worhwebo uClaus unika iNgqungquthela ye-Congress igunya lokuyilawula. UMthetho weTeTreffenetic ka-2006 (ukukhusela amaqonga kwityala lesithathu lecatape), uhlala kule ndawo yomgaqo-siseko. Amazwe aye azama ukulawula iinkalo zezoqoqosho, njengobungcathutho bezentlalo-ntle kunye nogcino-lwazi lwezentlalo-lwazi, kodwa ajongene neengxaki phantsi komdlalelo weDornaminter Classiaste Clause ukuba imithetho yawo ichasene namashishini asemantla. I-CPAS, umzekelo, isebenza kwiinkampani eziqokelela ulwazi olusuka kubemi baseKhalifonini, kungakhathaliseki ukuba ikho kwindawo ekuxinwa kuyo, i-occustonel, i-te, i-exective projective projectives.

Ukunyamekela impilo kunye nokusebenzisana

NFIB v. Sebelius isigqibo asiyimiselanga nje kuphela i-Chwethemsc Claus kodwa kwakhona yaseka ukuba ulwandiso lwe-Affordic Act yeNkhathalelo alunakunyanzeleka kumazwe ngokusongela ukukhupha imali ekhoyo yeMedicaid. Inkundla ibambe ukuba urhulumente wesizwe akanako "kuthabatha umthinjwa" ukuze andise ukufikelela kwakhe kolawulo. Esi sigqibo sicebise iinkqubo zamaziko alandelayo, kuquka inkqubo ye-Engcinety Inshorensidensis, kunye notshintsho lwezempilo lwabantwana lwexesha elizayo. Kwakhona iqinisa umgaqo othi inkqubo yezoshishino yezoqoqosho ayinakunyanzela ukuba athathe inxaxheba kwimibutho emibutho emitsha yezo yolawulo ngaphandle kokwenza ukhetho olunyanisekileyo.

Amatyala ayintloko eNkundla Ephakamileyo Abangela Ulungiso Lorhwebo

  • Gibbons v. Ogden (1824): emisele amandla ezwe kurhwebo lwamazwe kunye nohambo ngenqanawa.
  • [FLT] Wickard v. Filburn (1942): ulawulo lwequmrhu lolawulo lwengingqi losetyenziso lwengqolowa yobulali njengoluchaphazela urhwebo lwamazwe.
  • umva weAtlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States (1964): ISihlomelo II saMalungelo aBalelwa phantsi koMthetho ka Claus worhwebo, uvimbele ucalucalulo lobuhlanga kwiindawo zoluntu.
  • [FLT] United States v. Lopez (1995): Amandla orhwebo uClaus ngokubetha phantsi uMgaqo-wesikolo Okhululekileyo.
  • [FLT] South Dakota v. Wayfair, Inc. (2017): yajika yajika umthetho wobukho bokwezorhwebo lwaseburhulumenteni.
  • [FLT]Foderation of Independent Business v. Sebelius (202): Ibeke imida amandla orhwebo u Claus ukugunyazisa umsebenzi wezoqoqosho.

Isiphelo: Ukubekwa ngokunempumelelo komgaqo-siseko worhwebo

UMgaqo-siseko waseUnited States usele luxwebhu olusisiseko lolawulo lwezoqoqosho. Isiseko solawulo lwawo lwezorhwebo, isakhiwo solawulo lorhulumente, kunye nemigaqo-nkqubo yokukhusela impahla kunye nezivumelwano zelizwe, ikhokele inkqubela yezoqoqosho yelizwe ukusuka ekudibaniseni inkqubela yezoburhulumente kwimicimbi yasemva kwezobugcisa. Iingxoxo zamandla adlulileyo, amalungelo karhulumente, amalungelo eezwe, nemiqathango yomthetho .

Kubafundi bezoqoqosho, umthetho, kunye noluntu, ukuqondwa kwale migaqo-siseko kuyimfuneko. UmGaqo-siseko awunyanzelisi ziphumo zezoqoqosho, kodwa umisela imithetho yomdlalo apho abadlali bezoqoqosho basebenza khona. Njengoko kuvela ubugcisa obutsha neengxaki zomhlaba wonke, amalungiselelo afanayo okubhaliweyo aza kuchazwa kwakhona ngelensi entsha. Ingxoxo eqhubekayo phakathi kwamasebe amathathu karhulumente − kunye phakathi kweWashington namakomkhulu karhulumente, iqinisekisa ukuba umGaqo-siseko uhlala ungumsebenzi ophilayo kumgaqo wezorhwebo kunye nomgaqo wezorhwebo.

Ukufundwa kongezelelweyo, jonga i yeNkqutyana yoLwazi loMgaqo-siseko woMgaqo-siseko woLawulo lwezomthetho weChwebo Claus, iProjekthi yetyala leNkundla ePhakamileyo yeNkundla , kunye neZiko loMgaqo-siseko wesizwe .