Isiseko sembali solongamo lwesizwe nomGaqo-siseko waseUnited States

UMgaqo-siseko waseUnited States, owabhaliswa ngo-1787, wayila isakhiwo sikarhulumente omtsha wephondo, kodwa washiya imo yezizwe zamaMelika amaIndiya ingacaciswanga kakhulu. Ngexesha leNdibano yezomGaqo-siseko, abafaki-fakela imbono yamazwe amaIndiya ahlukeneyo, azimeleyo, abaphathi berepublic entsha ababeza kuqhuba kunye nawo ngezivumelwano. Le ngqiqo iboniswa kumbhalo womGaqo-siseko, okhankanya “amaIndiyan” kathathu qha, aphelele ngokwemo yegunya likarhulumente kunokuba kuchazwe amalungelo esizwe.

I- Commerce Claus (Icandelo 8, Claus 3) inika iNgqungquthela amandla “okulawula urhwebo namazwe asemzini, kunye namazwe amaninzi amaIndiya, kunye nezizwe zamaIndiya.” Ngokubeka izizwe zamaIndiya kwisigwebo esinye njengamazwe namazwe asemzini, abafaki-mthetho bavuma ngokupheleleyo ukuba zikwimeko engaqhelekanga yezobupolitika. Noko ke, eli binzana lanika urhulumente igunya elingenalo igunya kulwalamano lwezoqoqosho nezizwe, igunya elizakusetyenziswa kamva ukuthethelela imithetho yezoburhulumente.

I-Treaty Claus (Icandelo 2, Claus 2) ivumela uMongameli ukuba enze izivumelwano kunye “necebiso kunye nemvume yeBhunga.” Ukusukela ngo 1778 ukuya ku-1871, i-United States yangena kwizivumelwano ezingaphezulu kwe 370 namazwe amaNative. Le zivumelwano zagqalwa njengomthetho ophakamileyo welizwe phantsi ko u-Slabel [[FLT]] [[FLT]]] (umthetho-Clausle VI, Claus 2), ovakalisa ukuba zonke izivumelwano zenziwe phantsi kwegunya le United States zigunyaziwe. Phezu kwalo mgaqo-siseko, urhulumente wophulo oluninzi, urwulukhokelele kwizivumelwano ezinde zoburhulumente obusemthethweni kwimbali yesizwe.

Ukungathethi komGaqo-siseko ngolongamo lwemfuza lwezizwe zamaNanikazi kwabangela ukuba kubekho ikhamacana elwenziwa yiNkundla ePhakamileyo ekugqibeleni. Kungcelele lwamatyala okuqala, uMgwebi omkhulu uJohn Marshall wachaza imfundiso eyayiza kuchaza umthetho wamaIndiya ngokweenkulungwane. [FLT][1] Johnson] v. McIntosh[FLT][FLT]] [1823], iNkundla yathiwa ukuba abemi bobucala babengenakuthenga ilizwe ngokuthe ngqo kwizizwe zamaIndiya ngenxa yokufunyanwa kwanika i-United States isiqu esipheleleyo sokwembukufunyanwa. Oku “kukhupha intengo yesizwe." ngokufanelekileyo kwabekwa amalungelo emali ngexesha elivumayo ukuba izizwe zigcine ilungelo lokuhlala kulo.

Amalungiselelo angundoqo omGaqo-siseko kunye nempembelelo yawo kulongamo lweIndiya

Ukhuthuzo oluzizizinzileyo nokhukuliso

ISupremacy Claus imisa ukuba umthetho karhulumente uthathe indawo yokuqala kumthetho wesizwe. Kwizizwe zamaNative, lo mgaqo ubuyikhaka nekrele. Kwelinye icala, ukhusela izizwe ekungeneni koorhulumente bamazwe `amazwe ngokuqhelekileyo akanakukwazi ukulawula imicimbi yesizwe ekuxabana. Kwelinye icala, xa iNkundla ePhakamileyo idlulisela imithetho engqubana nolawulo lwesizwe, umthetho wesizwe uyaphumelela, uthoba idelela ulawulo lwesizwe. Umzekelo, iMajoniza Crimes Act (1885) inika inkundla zolawulo lwesizwe kwimicimbi emikhulu esixhenxe ebambeneetyala, kwana xa zombini izigebetho namaxhoba zazingamalungu esizwe. Inkundla ekwakhenke i-o `Inkundla yesizwe' ixhasa le komiti kulawulo lwesizwe.[FLD][FLD][F1] .[FG.[5][5][5] [18]

Urhwebo LukaClaus Namandla Angumbutho

I-Indiya Commerce Claus itolikiwe ukunika iNgqungquthela [[FLT: 0] amandla angaqhelekanga kwimicimbi yezoMdabu ``igunya elibanzi' [igunya elingekaqiniswanga nguMgaqo-siseko]. [Ku [[FLT]] [FLT] Love Wolve v. [[FLT]] [1903] [03], iNkube iNkulawula ukuba iBhunga i-Brouavet, kwanezo zithembisa umhlaba wesizwe osisigxilo ezibambe ulawulo. [ukuthi olusihlasele ulawulo lwesizwe] kunye nokuvula ucango lweminyango, ngexesha izigidi ze-ekhilo yelizwe zadluliselwa kulo ndawo zingenayo. Namhlanje, i-plene, i-egnotentiant ephikisana nezizwe ezithiyokuba ingundayo.

ISivumelwano sikaClaus neNkqukumbelo yeSivumelwano-

Isivumelwano sikaClausle sanika amazwe oMdabu isixhobo esinamandla sokunxibelelana ne-United States njengalinganayo. Noko ke, ngo-1871, iKhomishini yadibanisa umkhweli kwisivumelwano esaphelisa ukwenziwa kwesivumelwano nezizwe zamaIndiya. Ukususela ngelo xesha, izivumelwano nezizwe zenziwe ngomthetho okanye ngomyalelo ophezulu, onokuthi utshintshwe ziiBhunga ezilandelayo. Oku kwanciphisa ulwalamano olusemthethweni lwezizwe zesizwe yaye kwasusa ulwalamano komnye wesivumelwano solawulo lorhulumente. Nangona kuphelile ukwenziwa kwesivumelwano, izivumelwano ezikhoyo zisekho zisenesibopho esisemthethweni, kwaye iinkundla ziyaqhubeka zicacisa ezo mithetho esemthethweni.

Uphawu lwetyala lweNkundla Ephakamileyo: Ityala “laseMarchy Trigon” Nangaphaya

[[UMTL: 0] Johnson v. McIntosh (1823)

Njengoko kuphawuliwe, eli tyala lamisela imfundiso yokufunyanwa kwayo. Nangona amalungelo empahla eMdabu elinganiselweyo, kwakhona laqonda ukuba izizwe zazino “isibizo se-Indiya” ebesinokucinywa ngurhulumente wezwe kuphela, hayi ngamazwe okanye ngabantu ngabanye. Lo mgaqo kamva wabumba isiseko sokuthembana kwesizwe.

[[UMTL:0] Uhlanga lweCheroke j. Georgia (1831)

ICherokee Nation yafuna umyalelo nxamnye nemithetho yeGeorgia eyaphelisa urhulumente wesizwe yaza yathimba amazwe. IJaji enkulu uMarshall yagqiba kwelokuba iCherokee Notion yayingelo “isizwe sasemzini” phantsi kweGatya III lomGaqo-siseko, kodwa kunoko yayi“lisizwe esixhomekeke kwigosa.” Eli gama lididayo lavuma ukuba ulongamo lwesizwe xa lisenza ukuba lube phantsi kolawulo lukarhulumente. Inkundla yakwathi kwakhona iCherokee Nation ayikwazi ukumangalela urhulumente kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo − as engqukuva igaqweqwele yaso.

[[UMTHLO: 0] Worcester v. Georgia (1832)

Kwisigqibo esiphawulekayo, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yawisa umthetho weGeorgia njengegxalabatha-nxaxheba kulawulo lwesizwe. Marshall wabhala ukuba “isizwe saseCherokee sisizwe esahlukileyo, sihlala kummandla waso, apho imithetho yeGeorgia ingenako ukunyanzeleka.” UMongameli Andrew Jackson wala ngokudumileyo ukunyanzelisa umthetho, okhokelela kwiTrack of Ria. Noko ke, [FLT]] uLorcester uhlala elityala elisisiseko lolawulo lwesizwe, emisela ukuba alunakuba nagunya kumthetho ngaphandle kokuba iBhunga loMbutho ligunya ligunyazisa.

United States v. Kagama (1886)

Eli tyala laxhasa iMajor Crimes Act, linika igunya leenkundla zephondo kulwaphulo-mthetho oluthile. INkundla yathethelela oku kungenelela ngokubhenela kwingcamango yamagumbi okuhlala kuwo-"izizwe zixhomekeke kwaye zifuna ukhuseleko lukarhulumente. Isigqibo sandisa kakhulu igunya lorhulumente ngokulahlekelwa kwenkqubo yokugweba yesizwe.

[[UMTL:0] McClanahan v. Arizona State Police Commission (1973)

Kweli tyala lanamhlanje, iNkundla Ephakamileyo yaqinisekisa ukuba amazwe akanakuhlawula irhafu kumaMerika Omthonyama ahlala kwimiqathango ngaphandle kokuba ngokucacileyo iNkqutyana iyayigunyazisa.

IsiHlomelo Se - 14 Nobumi Bemi Bemi Bemi Bomthonyama baseMerika

ISigqibo soMphetho-Mgaqo-nkqubo se-14, esagunyaziswa ngo-1868, sinika “bonke abantu abazelwe okanye abadaliweyo eUnited States, kunye nento ephantsi kwegunya laso.” Ibinzana elithi“ bathobele igunya laso.” Inkundla Ephakamileyo yachazwa yiNkundla ePhakamileyo [FLT]] [[FLT]] [[FLT]][2] [[FLT] [184]] ukushiya amaMelika ase-Merika. INkundleni ikholelwa ukuba amaIndiyaben abengabo “abangabo abazalelwanga phantsi kwegunya lesizwe laseUnited States" ngenxa yokuba ukuzinikela kwabo okuphambili kwakukuhlanga lwabo. Yathatha uMthetho we-Indiyan [FLD [FFFF:] [F]] [FF5]] [185] [18] [ish] [indel] [ish]) ukunikezela ukuba abemi base-Oristadity bonke abantu baseMerika. Ngokobukweni-Merika. Ngokomthetho-Merika

Impembelelo yokulungisa ulawulo lwesizwe intsonkothile. Ukuba ngummi akuphelisanga ulwalamano lwamagumbi; izizwe zahlala phantsi kolawulo lukarhulumente. Amanye amalungu esizwe aphikisa ngelithi isiqinisekiso soMthambeko we-14 “sokukhuselwa ngokwalinganayo” singqubana namalungelo obukhosi besizwe sokumisela okanye ukusebenzisa imithetho yezizwe ngokwahlukileyo. Iinkundla zisoloko zikholelwa ukuba oorhulumente besizwe, njengabalawuli abahlukeneyo, abanyanzelekanga ngoMphetho we-14 ngendlela efanayo namazwe okanye urhulumente worhulumente.

ISiseko soMgaqo-siseko saNgoku: Ityala lokuThemba uManyano noKwethu

Imfundiso Yokukholosa

UMgaqo-siseko awulwenzi ulwalamano lokuthembana, kodwa iNkundla ePhakamileyo inike uxanduva umsebenzi wesizwe ukukhusela izizwe zoMda we-Indiya kunye nobuncwane bazo obusekelwe kwizivumelwano kunye nolwimi lweklatshi kwi kagama kunye namanye amatyala. I-Indiyan-Intelligation nemfundo Isenzo sobuzwelonke solu manyano [[FLT:] [[FLT]] [[3] [ISDEA]) itshintshela inkqubo kulawulo lwesizwe lwenkqubo yorhulumente, kodwa uxanduva lwayo luyaqhubeka lungadityaniswa. Iimeko ezifana [FLD5] .[FFFF]

IMithetho yeNkcubeko neMithetho yaMagunya e-Indiya

Ngo-1968, iBhunga ladlulisa iSivumelwano samaLungelo ase-Indian Civil Rights Act (ICRA), eyasebenzisa inkoliso yamaLungelo kwiphondo. Le yayiyinkqubo etshayelelayo yomgaqo-siseko. "INkundla Ephakamileyo" iye yasebenzisa amandla ayo okuthintela ulawulo lwesizwe egameni lokukhusela amalungelo abantu. Noko ke, i-ICRA ayiquki zonke izikhuseli zomgaqo-siseko (umz., akukho mgaqo-siseko, akukho lungelo lokucebisa kwiinkundla zesizwe ngeendleko zikarhulumente). Inkundla ePhakamileyo isoloko isithi isithi i-habeas corpus ilinganiselwe, igcina igunya lenkundla yesizwe.

Iingxaki ZomGaqo-siseko Wexesha Elizayo

Amalungelo Omhlaba Nemfundiso Yokufunyaniswa Kwawo

Imfundiso yokufunyanwa kwayo, esekelwe kwingcamango engokwasemthethweni ye15-centurry ye-Europe, iye yalahlwa zezinye iziqu zezizwe ngezizwe kodwa ihlala ikhokelwa kumthetho we-U.S. osemthethweni-siseko owenziwe Johnson v. McIntosh. Amazwe oMda ayaqhubeka elwela ukuqwalaselwa kweziqu zawo zokuqala, ngokufuthi ngokubonisa ukuba imimiselo okanye izenzo zegunya lesizwe ziyawahlula amalungelo ekhuselweyo. [[FLT] [FLT][FLT]] [FLT]] [FT] [FGIT] v.[FLT' [FLT] [FLT] [5] [20] umgaqo wemithetho-siseko somthetho-siseko somthetho-mthetho-siseko wesizwe othenjiweyo, njengoko kuthenjiwe siseko somthetho-mthetho-mo-siseko sesizwe, njengoko kuthenjiwe siseko somthetho-onke, uxhomekeke kumazwe-onke, njengoko kuthelela

Iimpikiswano Eziphambili

Ulwaphulo-mthetho kunye nolawulo lwabemi kumathandabuzo luxande oludibeneyo lwesizwe, urhulumente, kunye negunya lobuzwe. Ugonyamelo oluchasene naMantokazi lwango 2013 lwamkele igunya lolwaphulo-mthetho elilinganiselweyo kwizizwe ezingengomalungu ee-Native abenzi bogonyamelo lwasekhaya, ukutshintshwa komthetho olwenziwa ngumthetho we-Oliphanumt v. quiamish I-Indiyan [[FLT:] [1288], eyayikholelwa ukuba izizwe azinakukwazi ukumangalela abangeyo abathathi-Nantam. Umthetho-Mgaqo-siseko wesizwe olawula abantu abangengomalungu e-NUNIGUNIGU] uhlala uphikisana ngokushushu, ngokuphikisa okuthile oko kukuthiwahlula ulawulo lwe-6 lwe-Scracticivey. Olunye oluqulueqesholo lomthetho lwesizwe, oluvunywayo oluthiweyo, oluvunywa luqwa yimithetho, olunoluvoluvoluvo

Umlinganiselo wokuphinda kusetyenziswe kwemithombo yendalo

Ukwabiwa kwamagunya kukwayilwe ukulawulwa kwesizwe kukwayilwa kokulawula koovimba bendalo. I-EPA's uTshintsho lwaMazwe lwenkqubo ivumela izizwe ezaziwayo ukuba zimisele imigangatho yobunjani yamanzi phantsi koMthetho weManzi acocekileyo, kodwa le migaqo ichasene nemfuno yesizwe. [FLT][3] [[FLT]] [[FLT][FLT][4][FLT] [2015], iNkuMyundulo ephakamileyo ibeke umda wegunya le EPA kumazwe angeyomibutho engekho semthethweni.[5]

Iimbambano Eziyintloko Zolongamo Lomthonyama Namhlanje

  • Ukhuseleko lwamalungelo omhlaba wesizwe: luqhubekeka lusoyikiso oluvela kwimisebenzi yezibonelelo, ukukhupha oovimba, kunye nokungena kukarhulumente. INkundla ePhakamileyo McGirt[ isigqibo sinemibuzo evuliweyo malunga nemida evaliweyo.
  • Ukufumana ulawulo lwesizwe kumthetho wesizwe: I- Bureau yeMicimbi yamaIndiya [ inikezela ngemisebenzi entsonkothileyo yemimiselo, kwaye iBhunga lisoloko livumela imvume yesizwe ngomthetho ofana no-2020 Omkhulu waseMelika uMthetho we-Outrootes [.
  • Isigwebo se-juristion kumatyala olwaphulo-mthetho nawabemi: Iinkundla zesizwe zisengenalo igunya kubamangalelwa abangengomalungu eeNtlanganiso, zidala izithuba zonyanzelo lomthetho. VAWA 20222] ukuphinda kugunyaziswe [ ulawulo lwesizwe olwandisiwe phezu kolwaphulo-mthetho oluthile, kodwa ukuphumeza kujongene neengxaki zomgaqo-siseko.
  • [[UMTL:0] Ulawulo phezu koovimba bendalo kunye nemibandela yemekobume: Izizwe zifuna igunya elinye okanye ulawulo oluyintloko kwimihlaba yookhokho bazo, ngokufuthi zixhomekeke kumalungelo esivumelwano njengokhuseleko lomgaqo-siseko.
  • [[FLT: 0] Ubuchule bezizwe bokunyanzela irhafu kumashishini angengawo akwindawo ye-Nautifiniti bulinganiselwe yimithetho yeNkundla ePhakamileyo enjenge Atkinson Trading Co. v. Shirley (1997). Ukudlamka okugunyazisiweyo, phantsi komthetho we-[[FLT: 4.] I-Indian Gaming Regatation Act (1988)[FLT: 5, NW], ingqinisile isixhobo sezoqoqosho esisebenzayo, kodwa ihlala iphantsi kolawulo lomthetho.

Ukukhangela Phambili: Utshintsho LomGaqo-siseko Nolawulo Lwesizwe

Amazwe amaninzi amaIndiya kunye nemibutho yezoburhulumente iphikisa ngelithi umGaqo-siseko ngokwawo kufuneka uphinde uhlolwe ukuze ukhusele ngokupheleleyo ulongamo lwesizwe. Izicwangciso ziquka ukutshintshwa komGaqo-siseko ukuze kucaciswe ukuba izivumelwano azinakukhutshwa ngaphandle kwemvume yesizwe, okanye umthetho wesizwe omisa imbopheleleko yokuthengiselwana njengomsebenzi onyanzelisayo womgaqo-siseko. iBhunga loMgaqo-siseko lamaIndiya aseMelika [ liyaqhubeka livavanya iBhunga-ngqungquthela yemi kule miqathango, kwaye liyaqhubeka livavanya imida yamandla orhulumente.

Kubafundisi-mfundo nabafundi, ukuqonda iziseko zomGaqo-siseko zamalungelo amaIndiya aseMerika kubalulekile. UmGaqo-siseko unika isiseko sobukhulu borhulumente kunye neempikiswano ezingokwasemthethweni zolawulo lwesizwe. Umzabalazo oqhubekayo wokulungelelanisa le migaqo ikhuphisanayo, amalungelo ombuso, kunye nokuzilawula kwesizwe ngokwaso, kwaye ukuxhasa komthetho wamaIndiya wangoku. Ngokufunda indaleko yembali ukusuka kwi-Marshall Trigosy ukuya [FL: 0] McGrirt, ubani uzuza ukuqonda indlela umGaqo-siseko oqhubeka ngayo ubumba ubomi bamaMerika namaMerika namaMerika anamhlanje ulawulo lwezizwe zawo.

Amaziko angundoqo okuhlola aquka uNxulumano lwesizwe lwamaNdiya aseMelika, [ iZiko loMthetho le-Indiya [[FLT:][FLT][[FLT:]][FLT]][[FLT]]] [[FLT]] [[FLT]]] izicwangciso zeMihlaba yomthetho [[FLT]][FLT][FL:][FL:[11].[FLT] izimvo eziphezulu]. Iimeko eziphezulu kwiimeko ezixoko ezixoxinzelelwayo [FL:][FL:][13: [12][1][15]][FT]] [FLT]] [iLT]] [ithenti elinegunya elisemthethweni] [iiiiiiiii, elikuneneyokunye lwabiwo-mthetho-mthetho