Isiseko Sokuphendula Korhulumente

Ingcamango yokuziphendulela korhulumente iye yaqalisa ngokuphawulekayo ukutyhubela iinkulungwane, ixhomekeke kwiziganeko zembali, iinguqu zezentlalo, kunye neemfuno zabemi. Ukuqonda le ndaleko kubalulekile kubafundisi nakubafundi njengoko inika isiseko sokuhlolisisa iingxaki zexesha elikhoyo abajamelene noorhulumente ehlabathini lonke. Ukubekwa kwetyala akuyonto nje engqinelayo yale mihla; sisiseko esilawulayo esimisela enoba urhulumente uyabanceda abantu bakhe okanye uyabalawula. Ukusukela kwimithetho yokuqala ebhaliweyo ukuya kubuchule obuntsonkothile bolawulo namhlanje, uhambo olubonisa ngokucacileyo, olunempumelelo, kunye norhulumente osoloko ephendula. Eli nqaku lihlola ezo ziganeko eziphambili, iinkcubeko, kunye nemiqobo eqhubekayo eqhubeka ukuchaza ukuphendula kolawulo lukarhulumente kwinkulungwane engamashumi amabini-kuqala.

Iimbono Zembali Ngokuchana Kwamatyala Karhulumente

Ukutyhubela imbali, kuye kwavela iintlobo ezahlukahlukeneyo zikarhulumente, nganye ixhomekeke kwiindlela zayo zokuziphendulela. Iintlobo zolawulo zangaphambili zazisoloko zingekho ekucaceni, zikhokelela kukonakala nokusetyenziswa kakubi kwegunya. Noko ke, iziganeko ezibalulekileyo ziye zafak ’ isandla ekuphuhliseni ukuphendula koorhulumente. Ngokuhlolisisa le mizekelo yembali, sinokubuqonda ngakumbi ubungxengxe-ngxelo bemibutho efuna ukugcinwa ityala layo.

Impucuko Yamandulo Nembewu Yolawulo

Kwimpucuko yamandulo, njengaleyo yase Mesopotamia naseYiputa, abalawuli babejongwa njengemicimbi yobuthixo. Ukuziphendulela ngokuyintloko kwakunyanzeliswa ngamaziko onqulo kunokuba kumiselwe izakhiwo zikarhulumente. IKhowudi kaHammurabi (unyaka 1754 BC) yenye yemithetho esemthethweni yakudala eyaziwayo kwaye yamiselwa ukuba abalawuli babebotshwe ngumthetho, ubuncinane kwingcamango. Kodwa ukunyanzeliswa komthetho kwakuxhomekeke kakhulu kwigunya lokumkani. Ngokufanayo, eTshayina yamandulo, ingcamango ye-"Manuat of Ezulwini" yayikholelwa ukuba ukuba abalawuli banokususwa ukuba baphulukana nento abakholiswa nguThixo, uhlobo oluthile lokuziphatha. Noko ke, ezi nkqubo zamandulo zazinqabile ukuphembelela abahlali begunya. Iimbewu zokuphendula amatyala zazityalwe kodwa zakhula.

Ukuvela Kwedemokhrasi EGrisi Yamandulo

Ukufika kwedemokhrasi eGrisi yamandulo kwaphawula ukutshintsha okuphawulekayo ekujongeni ityala likarhulumente. E-Athens, abemi baqalisa ukufuna ukubalasela nokungaqukwa kwelungelo lokuthabatha inxaxheba kwinkqubo yokwenza izigqibo. Iziqumrhu ezinjengeNdibano kunye neBhunga lama-500 elilungiselelwe amaqonga ukwenzela ingxoxo kawonke-wonke kunye nolawulo. Abagcini-ofisi babenokujongwa phantsi kwaye banokususwa ekuvalweni. Noko ke, oku kuphendula kwalinganiselwe ekukhululeni abemi bamadoda, nabafazi abakhutshwe ngaphandle, amakhoboka, nabemi basemzini. Idemokhrasitheriyo yabonisa ukuba ukuphendula ityala kunokwenziwa kwisakhiwo sikarhulumente, kodwa ikwabonisa indlela ezibuthathaka ngayo iinkqubo ezinjalo: zazinokuthotyelwa yidemo yokungabikho kwemfazwe nemfazwe.

IRiphabliki YaseRoma: Ziza kuhlala Zilungelelanisiwe, Zilungelelaniswe Yaye Zikho Kakuhle

IRiphabliki yeRoma yaseka inkqubo entsonkothileyo yokuhlola kunye nolungelelwano, namasebe ahlukeneyo karhulumente (ii-consul, iCantenat, iindibano) kunye neofisi ye-tribune ukukhusela amalungelo e-plebeian. Iinkqubo zokuphendula ziquka imida yexesha, iingxelo zemali kawonke-wonke, kunye necursus cursus [[FLLD] cursum [iiiinters] [indlela yomsebenzi obalulekileyo] [indlela engundoqo]). Ukanti iRiphabliki ekugqibeleni yanikezela kukonakala, ukuxinzelelwa kobutyebi, kunye nokuxinzelelwa kwamandla kwimicimbi yemicimbi yemali njengoJulius Caesrian Caes. Ukuwa kweRiphabliki kusebenza njengenbali: kakuhle kwaneeprojectives zobugracrityys zinokubola ukuba intle kunye nezakhiwo ezithiweyo zihlukunyusiwe. Okunjalo kwembali kunyusa imfuneko yezenzo eziyimfuneko.

IMagna Carta Nomphumo Wayo Ohlala Ukho

Ukutyikitywa kweMagna Carta ngo-1215 kudla ngokuchazwa njengexesha elibalulekileyo kwindaleko karhulumente. Yamisa umgaqo wokuba wonke umntu, kuquka ukumkani, abe phantsi komthetho, abeke isiseko seenkqubo zomthetho zale mihla. U-Celaus 39 no-40 kwiTshati yavakalisa: "Akukho mntu okhululekileyo oza kuthi abanjiswe okanye afakwe entolongweni, okanye ahlulwe amalungelo akhe okanye izinto zakhe, okanye agxothwe okanye agxothwe, okanye angabikho, okanye angabikho, okanye amiswe nayiphi nayiphi na indlela, okanye aqhubekele phambili ngegunya lakhe, okanye sithumele abanye ukuba benze njalo, ngaphandle komgwebo osemthethweni wokulingana naye okanye umthetho welizwe." Lo yayingumthetho ofanele urhulumente olinganiselweyo. [16]

Ukukhanyiselwa Nonxulumano Lwabantu

Ixesha lokukhanyiselwa kwamalungelo abantu ngabanye kunye nesivumelwano soluntu, igxininisa ukuba oorhulumente bamele baphendule kubantu. Iingcali zefilosofi ezinjengoJohn Locke noJean-Jacques Rousseau zalwela ukuba umvandedwa nophendulelwano lukarhulumente. ULocke’s SAUD Sced kaRhulumente[[[[FFFF:1]] [16] [16] [16] [16] [16] [16])] urhulumente osemthethweni usekelwe kwimvume yokulawula nokulawula nokulawula okuqhelekileyo nokumelwe yimbono nje eninzi yale njongo. ISindululo se-Melika yendalo siphendundu. [[3] [1] [1] ISindululo sikaKumkani esinguMvukelo soMkhosi [FFFFoct:3] [9] [i, i-Esvoluediyonke, ichaza ngokuphandleka ngokupha kwe-yonke, i-Ecudiso, iyakuvakalisa ngokuvakalayoku, i-yokutyika kuMthe "ii kwe-"

Ukuvela kweMigaqo-siseko

Ukusekwa kolawulo-siseko olulawulwa ngumGaqo-siseko ngenkulungwane ye-18 neye-19 kwaqhubela phambili imigaqo yezoburhulumente yokuziphendulela. ImiGaqo-siseko yayisoloko iquka iimvavanyo kunye nolungelelwano lokukhusela ukusetyenziswa kakubi kwegunya. UmGaqo-siseko wase-U.S., kunye nokwahlula kwawo amagunya phakathi kwemithetho-siseko, igqeba, kunye namasebe ekwahlulelene, kwayila inkqubo yokuphathana. IBhili yamaLungelo lamalungelo aqinisekisa inkululeko ebangela abemi borhulumente ukuba baqhubeke benoxanduva: intetho, ingqungquthela, kunye nesicelo. Izakhiwo ezifanayo zavela eYurophu, iLatin America, kunye nezinye iindawo. Ngenkulungwane ye-19, ukwanda kwamaqela ezobupolitika, kunye nokukhula koomatshini abakhululekileyo bonke babe negalelo ekuthwaleni koxandumiso olukhulu lukarhulumente, nangona inkqubela yaye ikhungephindwa.

Inkqubela yale mihla

Njengoko imibutho yayisiya ihambela phambili ukuya kwixesha lanamhlanje, kwavela imimiselo emitsha yokuziphendulela, iphenjelelwa zimvukelo, iimfazwe, nokukhula kwebutho lasekuhlaleni. Inkulungwane yama - 20 yakubona ukwanda kwamazwe olawulo, nto leyo eyayifuna ulawulo olutsha ukuze kuqinisekiswe ukuba amagosa anyuliweyo nabantu ngokubanzi ahlala enokuphendula.

IXesha Eliqhubekayo Notshintsho Lolawulo

Ekuqaleni kweminyaka yee-1900, umbutho ohambela phambili eUnited States wahlasela ubuqhetseba kunye nokhuselo kurhulumente. Utshintsho lwaluquka ukuqaliswa kweemviwo zenkonzo yasekuhlaleni, unyulo olungqalileyo lwabachongi (we-17 Brand Amendment), nokusetyenziswa kwamasebe azimeleyo azimeleyo afana ne-Interstate Commission kunye ne-Federal Trade Commission ejongene nokuphembelela iinkampani zaburhulumente, kodwa kwaphakamisa imibuzo emitsha ngokuziphendulela kwala maqela angakhethwanga.

Utshintsho lwasemva

Mhlawumbi akukho siganeko sinye saphakamisa ityala langoku kwi-U.S. njengehlazo leWatergate (197-74). Ukusetyenziswa kakubi kwegunya nguMongameli uRichard Nixon kwakhokelela kwisaquko sotshintsho: i-Ethics in Government Act (1978) yavelisa iziluleko ezizimeleyo, uMthetho we-Intertive Surveillance (FA) wamisela ulawulo lobuchophengululi, kunye noMthetho wenkululeko yolwazi (FOIA) waqwalaselwa. Ubuchule bokuphendula obufanayo basetyenziswa kwezinye ii-democracy, kuquka nee-ombudsman ofisi zokhuselo, imithetho yokukhusela impempendululo, kunye nokufikelela kwimithetho yolwazi.

Indima Yoluntu Nabezopolitiko

Ekupheleni kweenkulungwane zama-20 nasekuqaleni kwama-21, imibutho yoluntu kunye noovimba bobuzwilakhe yaba ziindawo ezijongene nokuchanabeka. Amaqela afana ne Transparency International (esungulwe ngowe-1993) ajonga ukunganyaniseki emhlabeni wonke. Unyuko lwe-Internet kunye nosasazo lwezentlalo-mbini luye lwabangela ukuba kusasazwe ngokukhawuleza ulwazi kunye nokuzilungiselela, kodwa kwakhona kwadala amatyala amatsha kwinkcazelo egqwethayo kunye nenkcazelo egqwetha ingcamango. Umatshini okhululekileyo nozimeleyo uhlala uhleli ungundoqo wokuziphendulela, njengoko kuqatshelwe kuSuku lwe- UNIST UNIST UD FreeFreeD

Iingxaki Ezikhoyo Kuxanduva Lorhulumente

Nangona kukho inkqubela ebalulekileyo, oorhulumente banamhlanje bajamelana neengxaki ezininzi zokuziphendulela. Iingxaki ezifana nokunganyaniseki, ukungabi nazimvo ezicacileyo, nokuphenjelelwa zizinto ezikhethekileyo ziyaqhubeka zibangela abantu bangathembaki. Ukuntsonkotha kolawulo lwale mihla, kuquka ukuthunyelwa kwegunya kwimibutho yezizwe ngezizwe nakwizindlu zoluntu, kwenza kube nzima ukuba abemi bafune ukwazi ukuba ngubani omele enze izigqibo.

Urhwaphilizo Nokuncipha Kokholo

Urhwaphilizo luhlala luxhaphakile kwiindawo ezininzi zehlabathi. I-Tractive Direction International Folder Perceptions Index ibonisa ukuba amazwe amaninzi asekude kurhulumente ongenabuqhophololo. Ukunganyaniseki kubandakanya amagosa akwimigangatho ephezulu, ngelixesha urna ukonakala kuchaphazela iinkonzo zemihla ngemihla. Zombini zinciphisa umthetho kunye nomgaqo wokuba iofisi kawonke wonke ithembekile kawonke wonke. Amaziko alwa nokhuphiso lwezekelo zizinto eziqhelekileyo, kodwa zisoloko ziphantsi kwemiqathango okanye zilalanisa ngokwezobupolitika.

Impembelelo Yemidla Ekhethekileyo Nokuzilibazisa

Kwinkqubo yedemokhrasi, ukugunyazisa kusemthethweni kodwa kusenokungangeni migaqo-nkqubo kwimiba yobutyebi. Inkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. iNkundla ePhakamileyo [[FTLT:0] iSinyusi seNkundla yeSinyuko yesigqibo (2010]) esivumela iphulo elingenasiphelo lisetyenziswe ziinkampani kunye namaqumrhu, nto leyo ekhokelela ekubeni amagosa anyuliweyo amele aphendule ngakumbi kunabemi abaqhelekileyo. Umthetho wendlu yesango, apho amagosa karhulumente ashukuma eqele ukubhenela, imigca enzima. Amanye amazwe anemithetho engqongqo, kodwa imali kwezobupolitika ihlala ingucelomngeni oluqhubekayo emhlabeni wonke.

Indima Yobugcisa: Idinga Nemali

Ubuxhakaxhaka buye baguqula indlela yokuziphendulela korhulumente. Ngeli xesha buye babangela ukuba kucace ngakumbi ngokusetyenziswa kogcino-lwazi oluvulekileyo, buye bavelisa imingeni emitsha, njengendawo yokuhlola kunye nezisongelo zekhompyutha. Ngoku oorhulumente basebenzisa i-algorithm kunye nobuchule obungeyobunyani ukwenza izigqibo malunga nepolisi, intlalo-ntle, neenkonzo zikawonke-wonke. Ezi nkqubo zinokuba bhetyebhetyebhetye, kwaye zingabalwanga. Ingqiqo "yokuphendula ngetyala logcino-lwazi" ivela njengebala lokufunda, kodwa imiqathango yemithetho ihambela phambili ekusebenzeni kwayo. Ukufikelela kukawonke wonke ugcino-lwazi kuphucukuhambela phambili koomatilo olufana [[FLT:].

Iintlawulo zehlabathi

Ukudityaniswa kwehlabathi kunamatyala anzima njengoko oorhulumente besebenzisa ulwalamano lwezizwe ngezizwe kunye neengcinezelo zezoqoqosho. Ukudibana kwamazwe ahlukeneyo kuthetha ukuba imibandela yokuziphendulela kumazwe elinye inokuba nemiphumo emide. Iinkampani zamazwe amaninzi zisebenza ngaphaya kwemida, ngokufuthi ziphumile ekufikeleleni kolawulo lwawo nawuphi na urhulumente. Ukungalawuleki kwerhafu, ukuwohloka kwemekobume, kunye nokusetyenziswa kakubi kwamalungelo abantu ngamatyathangathanga ehlabathi jikelele. Amaziko ezizwe ngezizwe anjengeZizwe Ezimanyeneyo neWorld Tradentir Organization anamandla alinganiselwe ekuqhubeni abaphathi bemithetho-mthetho. Ukunyuka kwamazwe nakutyekelo olufuna ukulawulwa yidemokhrasi kumazwe amaninzi kugxininisa ukusetyenziswa kwemigaqo ekwakhemicine.

Ubuchule bokunika ingcebiso kuRhulumente

Ukuze kulungiswe iingxaki ezikhoyo, kunokwenziwa iindlela eziliqela zokuphakamisa ityala likarhulumente, ezi zinto zifuna ulawulo lwezopolitiko, ukuganana kwebutho loluntu nokuvela kwezinto ezintsha.

  • Ukwandisa ucwangciso olusemthethweni ukuqinisekisa ukubonakala nokuphendula. Oku kuquka ukuhlaziya imithetho yeFOI, ukukhusela abafuthi bempempe, nokuqinisekisa ukuba iinkqubo zolawulo zilungile kwaye ziphantsi kohlalutyo lwezomthetho.
  • [ ummi ongenelelayo ongenelelayo ekulawuleni ngokwee-parthers zikawonke-wonke, uqingqo-mali lokwabelana, kunye nokucebisana. Izinto ezifana noqingqo-mali lwezibonelelo [ luye lwaphumelela kwizixeko ezininzi ehlabathini lonke, lunika abemi ulawulo oluthe ngqo kwicandelo lokuthengwa kwabantu.
  • [[UMTL: 0] Ukuphucula ubugcisa bokuphucula ufikelelo kulwazi nokukhuthaza amanyathelo ogcino-lwazi avulekileyo. Oorhulumente kufuneka bamkele imigangatho evulekileyo, bapapashe ugcino-lwazi kwiifomati ezinokufundwa ngomatshini, kwaye bafake iingxelo zemivo ukuze abemi bakwazi ukusebenzisa loo data.
  • Ukufakela amaqumrhu azimeleyo ongameli ukuqwalasela izenzo zikarhulumente, njengemisebenzi echasene nokonakala, iombudsmen, kunye nenjengee-arhente jikelele. Le mizi kufuneka izimele kwaye ifumaneke ngokwaneleyo.
  • [[NTLA: 0] Ukulungiselela uthelekelelo lwe media olukhululekileyo noluzimeleyo olunokuphanda luze lunike ingxelo ngorhulumente ngaphandle koloyiko lokuphindezelelwa. Oku kufuna ukhuseleko olusemthethweni kwiintatheli, ukufikelela kwimithetho yolwazi, nokuxhasa uluntu ukufunda nokubhala kwimithombo yezixhobo.
  • Ukuqinisa intsebenziswano yezizwe ngezizwe ukuphendula imicimbi yokuphendula ityala yamazwe ngamazwe, kuquka iindawo zokuhlala zerhafu, urhwaphilizo kushishino lwezizwe ngezizwe, kunye nozibo lwemozulu.
  • Imfundo yoluntu efundisa abemi amalungelo abo nendlela yokufuna ukuphendula. Ukuba nolwazi lobumi kungumsebenzi ophambili walo nawuphi na urhulumente oza kuphendula.

Isiphelo

Indaleko yokuziphendulela kukarhulumente kukungqinelana nokuqhubeka komzabalazo wokubonakala nokulunga. Ngokuhlolisisa iimbono zembali kunye neengxaki zangoku, abafundisi kunye nabafundi bangakuqonda kakuhle ukubaluleka kokuziphendulela koorhulumente kwihlabathi lanamhlanje elintsonkothileyo. Ukuphendula akuyonto egqityweyo kodwa yinkqubo enamandla efuna iinguqulelo eziqhubekayo, ukubotshwa, nokugaxelelwa, nokuphapha. Ukusukela kwiMagna Carta ukuya kwixesha leminyaka yezobugcisa, ukusukela ekufundeni ngolwazi lwembali, ukusoloko kuhlala kuhleli komnye wembali yempucuko yabantu. Njengoko sijamelene neengxaki ezintsha zenkqumvo, izifo zemozulu, ukutshintsha kwemozulu, kunye nokunyuka kobuzwilaliso, ukuthatha inxaxheba, nokulawula umthetho akukhange kubaluleke ngakumbi. Kuphela ngokufunda kokuqala nokubandakanya nokungenanto entlandlo, kuqinisekisa ukuba sisebenze kwabanye abantu, abanye abantu, ngokunjalo, ngendlela,