Isiseko Solungelelwaniso Olukhethekileyo

IBill of Rights, eyamkelwa ngo-1791, ekuqaleni yanyanzelwa ngurhulumente wesizwe kuphela. Oku kuthetha ukuba oorhulumente bakarhulumente banokukwazi (kanjalo) yaye badla ngokwenza oku: "ukudityaniswa kwenkululeko esisiseko ngaphandle kwesiphumo somgaqo-siseko kazwelonke. Ukwenziwa kweNkundla ePhakamileyo yeshumi elinesine leSigqibo soLawulo-Mdalelo ngo1868 yaqalisa ukutshintsha le siseko. I-State Processistem Clauscession, efundeka ukuba akukho zwe liza “lizakukhupha namnye umntu wobomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo yomthetho,” yaba sisithuthi ngayo iNku ePhakamileyo isebenzisa ngokuthe ngcelele ilungiselelo lwamalungelo kaRhulumente kumazwe. Le nkqubo, eyaziwa ngokuba yi-'ekhetha, ayikhange ibe yenzekelelwa ngokobuqu okanye i-yo, i-meyiyo ukutyhubela inkulungwane engaphezulu kweproptigration.

Izigqibo zokuqala ezifana . (1925) zavula ucango ngokufaka umlomo wenkululeko, ngelixa Nearbor v. Minnesota [1931]) yasebenzisa ucinezela. Ngenkulungwane ye-20, iNkundla ifake imvume yasekunene ukuthwala izixhobo, ikhuselwa ekuphenyeni okungekho ngqiqweni, nasekutyekeni kwetyala phakathi kwabanye. Ubuchule obusemva kokuvavanywa ngokukhetha buxhomekeke kwingcamango yokuba amalungelo athile “akho kwingcamango yenkululeko emiselweyo” ukuba ayinako ukuphulwa nangaliphi na izinga lorhulumente. Lomgaqo umgaqo ukhuphi na lomthetho olungele ukusetyenziswa ngokusetyenziswa kwe-Gatholo. [FFozo] [Focto] [5]

Kubantu abakhubazekileyo, abakhethayo banikezela ngomgangatho obalulekileyo womgaqo-siseko. Ngelixesha i-state yokhuseleko olufana nomthetho waseMerika onoMthetho (ADA) unika iziqinisekiso ezibanzi ezichasene nolwaphulo-mthetho, amalungelo omgaqo-siseko aqukiweyo kuMphetho-siseko aqinisekisa ukuba iimeko azinakuyityeshela inkululeko esisiseko ```ipeech, indibano, imigaqo-mthetho elinganayo echaphazela abantu abakhubazekileyo.

Ukukhetha nokukhula kwamalungelo okungafezeki

Ukuhlaziywa Kwe - 14 Njengokhuselo

UKhuselo olulinganayo lukaClaus weSinyusi seshumi elinesine, ofakwe ngokupheleleyo nxamnye namazwe ngenkqubo efanayo, ebesisixhobo esiyintloko sabameli bamalungelo esiphene. Nangona ukukhubazeka kungelodidi olukrokrelekayo phantsi kohlalutyo olungokwesithethe olulinganayo (njengohlanga okanye imvelaphi yesizwe), iinkundla ziye zasebenzisa uhlolo oluphakathi kwiimeko ezininzi ezinxulumene nezikhubazeko, ingakumbi emva kweADA kunye noMphathi wayo, Icandelo 504 loMthetho weRehabilitation ka-1903. Imfundiso eququlukileyo ayiqinisekisi ukuba ayinakuchasana nale le migaqo ingundoqo yokulingana.

Ngokomzekelo, City of Cleburne v. Cleburne Living Center [1985], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yawisa umthetho onika umthetho ovunyiweyo olandulayo imvume yeqela lekhaya labantu abakhubazekileyo. Inkundla yenza uhlolo olusengqiqweni kodwa yagqiba ukuba umthetho uxhomekeke kwikhethe elingenangqiqo. Esi sigqibo, esisekelwe kwi-Sult Protection Clause, sibonisa indlela ikhothazo lemithetho enika ngayo amandla urhulumente nezenzo zasekuhlaleni ezibangela ukuba abantu bangakwazi ukumelana nokusebenza.

Inkululeko Yokuthetha NeyobuGqirha

Ukuhlaziywa kweSindululo Sokuqala siqinisekisa ukuba abaxhasi bamalungelo esiphene banokulungiselela, baqhankqalaze, kunye nezicelo zorhulumente ngaphandle kokoyika ukuvavanywa kobugxwayiba. Qwalasela imibhiyozo ekhutshwayo kwii-1970 eyafuna ukunyanzeliswa kweCandelo lama-504((ii-accontiviss) ezithabathe izakhiwo zephondo kangangeeveki. Ezo zenzo zixhomekeke kumalungelo enkululeko kunye neendibano ezikhuselwe ngokunyanzelwa kwabadlali besizwe ngokungeniswa. Ngaphandle koko, amajeliso ebeyayiphelisa imibhiyo ezenzo ezinjalo ngokungenasohlwayo.

Ngaphezu koko, ilungelo lokucela urhulumente ukuba alungise izikhalazo, adityaniswe, liye lanceda imibutho yokwabelana ngemithetho yolwaphulo-mthetho, ukucheba uqingqo-mali luye lwanquma ukulungiselela iinkonzo, kunye nezibonelelo ezingenakufikeleleka ngokusetyenziswa koomatshini bokwenza izicelo. Ukuhlanganiswa kwezi zibonelelo zoLuhlu lokuqala zoMphengululo kumthetho karhulumente osetyenziswa ngabantu abakhethayo kwenza ukuba kubekho isiseko sesizwe esizinzileyo sokwenza isenzo.

Ukukhululeka Kuphando Olungenangqiqo

Ukhuseleko loMphetho-Mgaqo-nkqubo wesine ochasene nokuphengulula nokuxhuzula okungekho ngqiqweni, okuqukiwe ngokupheleleyo kuMap v.Ohio (1961), lunentsingiselo ekhethekileyo kubantu abakhubazekileyo abanokuba ngabaphantsi kolawulo lukarhulumente olungenazikhundla. Umzekelo, abantu abafumana iinkonzo ezixhotyiswe nguMedicaid basoloko bejongene notyelelo lwasekhaya lwabahloli bakarhulumente. Ukuququzelela kuqinisekisa ukuba utyelelo olunjalo kufuneka luhambisane nesiqinisekiso kwaye lubangele iimfuno ngaphandle kokuba kuqwalaselwe. Olu vavanyo lomgaqo-siseko uyawathintela ukuba basebenzise isimo sobugqesholo-mali njengebhlo olungenagunyaziso.

Amatyala ophawu lomhlaba kuNqamlezo loHlolozo noNxebeko

[[UMTL:0] Olmstead v. L.C. (1999)

Ityala eliphambili leNkundla ePhakamileyo enxibelelanisa imigaqo yomgaqo-siseko kumalungelo okhubazeko liyi- Olmstead v. L.C., elithetha ngokungekho mthethweni ngabantu abakhubazekileyo. INkundla yabambelela ekubeni phantsi kwe-ADA, amatyala kufuneka anikeze iinkonzo ezisekelwe kuluntu xa zifanelekile, zingachasi iinkonzo ezinjalo, kwaye xa urhulumente ekwazi ngokufanelekileyo ukuhlalisa umntu. Nangona isigqibo sisekelwe kutoliko olusemthethweni, ingqiqo yeNkundla isebenzisa amaxabiso omgaqo-siseko wenkululeko kunye nokhuseleko olulinganayo olwenziwa kwimithetho. Imeko eluncedo eluncedo ekuphumele inkqubo esemthethweni yokuba ukubekwa kwemibutho kunguhlobo olungeyo olufanelekileyo localulo, ukuqinisekisa ukuba kungumgangatho osisiseko wokuhlala kumgangatho ophantsi kwemithetho esezantsi.

[[UMTL: 0]

[[NTL:0]. ILentenssee v. Lane, iNkundla Ephakamileyo yathi iSihlomelo II sokhuseleko lwe-ADA samandla ombuso ombuso xa sisetyenziswa kumatyala agunyazisa ukukhanyelwa kokungena ezindlwini zenkundla. Isigqibo sibonisa indlela ukuququzelelwa komthetho, obenengxaki yokuhamba-hamba, akanakukwazi ukufikelela kwinkundla. Inkundla ixhomekeke kwiNkundla ye-AUTClassiale kunye nelungelo lokufikelela kwiinkundla zokwenza izinto ngokufihlakeleyo.

BBD. yooKhomishinala v. Brown (2006) kunye nolunye unikezelo

Nangona ingangeni kumatyala okuququzelelwa, ezi zigqibo zigxininisa indlela imfundiso ebumba ngayo ucalucalulo olukhoyo lweziphene. Xa abadlali bakarhulumente bephula amalungelo omgaqo-siseko adibeneyo, abalawuli abaqhelekileyo bangamangalelwa ngaphantsi kwama-42 U.S.C. ngo1998, ngokungqalileyo befaka umGaqo-siseko. Le ndlela maxa wambi inika imposiso ebanzi okanye isiqabuliso esiphakathi kwemimiselo kuphela. Umzekelo, umntu okhubazekileyo ukhaba ukhanyele ukufikelela kumgangatho osisigxina othezinzileyo we-19989, ephuma kwimiqobo ethile ye-ADA.

Indlela Onokukhethwa Ngayo Umahluko neMithetho Engalawulekiyo

AmaMelika anoMthetho weNkcitho (ADA)

I-ADA iyalwalela ucalucalulo kumsebenzi (isiHloko I), iinkonzo zikawonke-wonke (isiHloko III), iindawo zokuhlala zikawonke-wonke (Isihloko III), kunye nonxibelelwano (isihlo se-template IV). Ukukhetha i-ADA kuqinisa i-ADA ngokuqhuba imigaqo yayo echasene nolwaphulo-mthetho-mthetho. Xa urhulumente okanye urhulumente wengingqi echasene ne-ADA, kungangoko kwaphula i-Ada equkiweyo yoKhuselo olulinganayo okanye i-S Proced Classia. Esi siseko sidia sidityanisiweyo sivumela iinkundla ukuba zitolike i-AAA kubanzi xa kuyimfuneko ukukhusela inkululeko engundoqo.

Ngaphezu koko, ukuququzelela kuthintela ukuphikisa ukuba iimfuno zeADA zingaphaya kwegunya likarhulumente. Ngenxa yokuba amaphondo kufuneka asoloko ethobela iBhili yamaLungelo, iimfanelo ezininzi zeADA zifuna nje ukuba amazwe enze oko umGaqo-siseko sele ufuna kona.) Umzekelo, ukunikezela ngentsingiselo yokufikelela enkundleni okanye ukukhusela inkululeko yabantu abaneziphene zengqondo kwizivumelwano.

ICandelo 504 loMthetho wokuLungisa

Icandelo 504, elilwalela ucalucalulo lwesiphene nabani na ofumana imali karhulumente, umhla we-ADA. Ukuhlawulwa kwemali kwadlala indima ephambili kwicandelo lokuqala lama-504 kuba abathathi-nxaxheba badla ngokuphikisa ukuba ukwamkela imali ye-odoli ye-oyilethoba akunakungalukhathaleli ukhuseleko olulinganayo lomgaqo-siseko. IiNkundla zisoloko zikholelwa ukuba iCandelo lama-504 logunya lokungadiscrinisi lihambisana namaxabiso agunyazisiweyo omgaqo-siseko. Oku kusi-synergygy kwanceda ekumiseni isiseko esisemthethweni se-AA kamva.

Abantu Abanesiphene SoMthetho Wemfundo (IDEA)

Umthetho wemfundo ekhethekileyo phantsi kwe-IDEA uqinisekisa ukusetyenziswa kwemfundo yasekuhlaleni efanelekileyo (FAPE) kubantwana abakhubazekileyo. Umthetho ofunekayo ofanele ukuququzelelwa ngamalungelo enkqubo e-IDEA(notice), ukuva, ukubongoza ``imomoner'' oququzelelweyo i-Umthetho ka-XECLERS Clausde. Xa amazwe ezama ukutshintsha ezi nkxaso, abazali bangabiza zombini amalungelo omthetho kunye nenkqubo efanelekileyo. Umzekelo, ilungelo lokuva okungakhethi phantsi kwe-IDEA lihambisana namalungelo afanelekileyo enkqubo aqukiweyo . Mathes v. Eldit .66]. Ukukhetha okuqinisekisa okumele kunikezelwe ngendlela elungileyo phambi kokuba umntwana efundisa.

Iziphumo Ezisebenzisekayo Kumthetho nomgaqo-nkqubo Karhulumente

Ukuququzelela okukhethiweyo kwenza okungaphezulu kuneenkundla ezinika amandla; kubumba indlela ezifuna ngayo imithetho yowiso-mthetho yesizwe. Ukwazi ukuba amalungelo asisiseko akanakuphulwa, kudla ngokuvela imigaqo yokuyila ehlonela inkululeko yabantu abakhubazekileyo. Umzekelo, amazwe amaninzi aye amisela “icebo lokunciphisa ukuqulunqwa, kungekuphela nje ngenxa yokuba i-ADA ifuna kodwa ngenxa yokuba umGaqo-siseko ukhusela inkululeko yomntu ngamnye. Ngokufanayo, achaza ukuba imigaqo yokwakha ufikelelo ingaphezulu kwemilinganiselo karhulumente ngokufuthi ngenxa yokuba oorhulumente basekuhlaleni baqonda ukuba umgangatho kawonke-wonke ongafikelelekiyo unokuba ucelw ’ umngeni wokuchasa inkqubela.

Kwinkqubo yobulungisa yolwaphulo-mthetho, ebandakanya ukuqinisekisa ukuba abamangalelwa abaneziphene bafumana ukhuseleko olufanayo nolungenangxaki. Ilungelo lokucebisa, ilungelo lokuthetha namangqina, nelungelo lokuvavanywa ngokukhawuleza, kunye nelungelo lokuvavanywa ngokukhawulezileyo (onke) kufuneka banikezelwe ngokunempumelelo kubantu abanolwazi okanye abakhubazekileyo. Iinkundla zibambe ukuba ukungaphumeleli ukunikela abatoliki abafanelekileyo okanye iindawo zokuhlala zolwazi ziyayilwa inkqubo efanelekileyo. Lo mgangatho womgaqo-siseko uthintela ukuba usebenzise ukukhubazeka njengesiseko sokushwankathela okanye ukhuseleko oluncinane.

Ukungahambelani kweRhulumente noMthetho woLuntu

Ingxinezeleko enye eqhubekayo ibandakanya ukhuseleko lombuso olulawulayo phantsi koMphetho-weshumi elinesine. Ngeli xesha ukuququzelela okukhethiweyo kwenza amalungelo anyanzeliswe kumagosa karhulumente kubuchule bawo bokonakaliswa, ukunyuswa kwetyala lemali ngokwako kusoloko kufuna ukukhutshwa kokhuseleko olusemthethweni lwezobusobongela. INkundla ePhakamileyo kwi i-Board of Trustees v. Garrett [2001] ibambelele kwelokuba iSihlomelo I se-AA asizange sifumane ukhuseleko lwe-ogrative lwasemoyeni lokwasemsebenzini. Noko ke, iNkuqululo II yashiya ingenakugwetyelwa ngenxa yamatyala angundoqo abandakanya amalungelo angundoqo. Oku kugxininisa umahluko ekuthetheni kumalungelo okhubazeko olusemthethweni, xa kukho umanyano olusezantsi olusezantsi lungaphantsi komqobo.

Ucelomngeni Lwangoku Nemida Engokwasemthethweni Yexesha Elizayo

Ukuphunyezwa kokungagqibeleli

Ngaphandle komanyano lwamandla okudibanisa, umahluko osele. Amanye amazwana anemithetho eqinileyo yamalungelo oluntu akhubazekayo egqitha isiseko sesiseko sesiseko se-California, iMassachusetts isoloko ikhokela .Ngoko ke abanye baye baxhathisa, ingakumbi kwiindawo ezinjengokuvota kunye nokukhutshwa komsebenzi ophantsi kolawulo. Ngenxa yokuba ukuqulutyiswa kokungaqiniseki komgaqo-siseko kuphela, amazwana angawamisela umlinganiselo othile womgangatho womgangatho we-14nath Amend Amend Amend. Umzekelo, umisela imithetho yokuvota engqongqo efuna imfuno ye-ID enokuba nento echaphazela ngokungenakuthelekiswa nakanjani ngokukhubazeka, kodwa ngaphandle kokuba enze umthwalo ongathethekiyo ngenxa yezilangazelelo zikarhulumente, angasinda kuphaka uphando olusemthethweni. Umthetho ungaqhubeka ukutyhabela kuzo zombini umgangatho wezo zombini nolwando-olwazi.

Ubuxhakaxhaka kunye nokufumaneka kwamanani

Ukunyuka kweenkonzo zesizwe zamanani `online portals , ukuchotshelwa kwenkundla, itelemedicine/i-raise imibuzo emitsha yokusetyenziswa kwe-teledicine. Ukuba iwebhsayithi karhulumente ayifikeleleki kubasebenzisi abaziimfama, ingaba ichasene nenkqubela-phambili okanye ikhuselwe ngendlela efanayo? Iinkundla ziqalile ukusebenzisa inkqubo yeqela le i-Olmstet[ ukuvavalstet ukuma kokusingqongileyo kwamanani, ziphikisa ukuba izixhobo ezingafikelelekiyo ziyakwazi ukuvala ngokunempumelelo abantu abakhubazekile. Noko ke, akukho sigqibo seNkundla ePhakakhulu sikholelwa ukuba umGatho-siseko ufuna iiwebhsayithi zelizwe ukuba zifikelele ngokupheleleyo. Kwimfundiso yokwahlulo-yokuquluko-ama-ama-injini i-injini i-injini.

Umahluko noTyelelo Oluninzi

Abantu abakwiqela elikwimida emininzi eliselubala--xhuzuni elikhubazekileyo abantu abanombala, i-LGBTQ+ abantu abakhubazekileyo abangengobanzi/abangalinganiyo nabadityanisiweyo. Ukukhetha akukabhekisi ngokupheleleyo indlela ezikrokrelelwa ngayo. Umzekelo, umfuduki okhubazekileyo ovalelwe ngabaphathi-mikhosi unokuba nazo zombini izibhengezo ezifunekayo (ezisekelwe kwisiphene) kunye nezithelekelelo ezilinganayo (ezisekelwe kuhlanga okanye kwimvelaphi yohlanga). Iinkundla zisoloko zizama ukusebenzisa ulwakhiwo oluluko. Ithuba elizayo liza kuvavanyaniswa ukuba ngaba liyakwazi ukukhusela ngokunempumelelo la maqela adityaniyo.

Ukusabela Kwingxaki Yengqondo Namangqina

Ukusetyenziswa kwamandla nxamnye nabantu abakhubazekile ngengqondo kuye kwahlolwa kakhulu. Ukhuseleko loMphetho wesine nxamnye nemikhosi egqithisileyo luququzelelwa kumaphondo, kodwa iinkundla zisoloko zivuma ukulawulwa ngamapolisa kwiimeko ezinesiphithiphithi. Ityala elinjenge Kisela v. Hughes[ [2018]) ityala elincitshitshisiweyo labaphathi. Okwangoku, urhulumente uzama ukuphendula ngenye indlela (umz., imizekelo yezonyango zengqondo kunye neengcali zezonyango) ibalaselisa uxinezeleko phakathi koku kumalungelo omgaqo-siseko kunye nomthetho osebenzayo. Ukukhetha akuyi kumele kumisele imidalelo ethile engaphandle: azina, zihambelana, zingoko, zisebenzisa amandla ngendlela elungele ukuphazamisa isazela okanye ehlazisa ngokucacileyo ukuchasana kwemithetho elungeleneyo.

Ubuchule Bokomeleza Ukhuseleko Ngokhuthuzo

Ukuqhutywa kweLifa leMveli

42 U.S.C. .1998 unikela unobangela othe ngqo wokuphulwa kwamalungelo omgaqo-siseko karhulumente ngabadlali bakarhulumente. Kubameli bamalungelo abakhubazekileyo, oku kuthetha ukuba umntu wakhanyela ukufikelela kwinkqubo yesizwe ngenxa yokungasebenzi komqobo we-Ada. Ii-Athorney zinokudibanisa ulwaphulo lwe-Adaa Procement Claus okanye i-Sect Claus Process, njengoko i-Act Claus efakiweyo. ICandelo lowe-1998 lidla ngokunikela iikhasicangca zonyango olufana nelahleko ye-parafication kunye nenkciso yemali engafumaneki phantsi kwe-AA kumongo.

Ukubandakanyeka kwiMigaqo-siseko kaRhulumente

I-logamsgray ekhethayo icwangcisa umgangatho wesizwe, kodwa umgaqo-siseko wesizwe usoloko unika ukhuseleko olongezelelekileyo. Kumaphondo afumana amalungiselelo acacileyo amalungelo okhubazeko. Ngokufana nokhuseleko olucacileyo lweFlorida olusekelwe kwisiphene, okanye isiqinisekiso somGaqo-siseko seHawaii sokungena kwizakhiwo zikawonke-wonke-wonke . ii-advocates zingaphikisa ukuba umthetho karhulumente ufuna okungaphezulu kobuncinane borhulumente. Lo mkhondo ophindiweyo (ukuqukwa kunye nomthetho womgaqo-siseko) udala isakhelo esiqinileyo sokukhusela abantu ngesiphene.

Ukugxininisa Ekuhlawulweni KwesiHlomelo Sesibhozo Sokugwetywa Kwenkohlakalo Nesohlwayo Esingaqhelekanga

Ukhuseleko loMphetho-mda wesiXhobo esi-8 ulwenziwe ngokugqithisileyo nesohlwayo esingaqhelekanga sichasene namaphondo. Kubantu abaneziphene kwinkqubo yobulungisa, oku kubandakanya ukuvalwa kwesohlwayo esingalinganiyo okanye esisilela ukumelana nokukhubazeka. Umzekelo, ukuvalelwa komntu ngenxa yokungakwazi ukuhlawula intlawulo ngenxa yokungakwazi ukusebenza ngenxa yokungakwazi kwakhe ukusebenza ngokungekho mthethweni kungaphazamisana noMphengululo wesiXhobe. Abameli baye baqalisa ukuphakamisa izityholo ezinjalo, bephikisa ngelithi imilinganiselo yesohlwayo engathethi ukuba ibangelwa yingxaki nesohlwayo ingenawo isohlwayo nesohlwayo esingaqhelekanga.

Isiphelo

Ukuququzelela okukhethiweyo akuyonto nje ebhaliweyo embalini; yimfundiso esebenzayo, ejikelezayo echaphazela ngokuthe ngqo ubomi bemihla ngemihla babantu abaneziphene. Ngokusebenzisa iBhili yamaLungelo kurhulumente nakoorhulumente basekuhlaleni, iququzelela ukuba amalungelo esiphene asekelwe kuMgaqo-siseko ngokwawo, kungekhona kuphela kwimimiselo yokuba iBhunga lisenokutshintsha kamva. Imithetho enxulumeneyo phakathi kwamalungelo abantu kunye nemithetho ejolisekileyo efana ne-ADA ne-IDEA ive ive ingulwanolwanomiselo olusigxina lwendlela yokuzikhusela ephucule ngokuphawulekayo, inkululeko, kunye nokulingana kwezigidi zabantu baseMerika.

Kodwa umsebenzi awukayenziwa. Ukuphunyezwa kwemeko, imingeni yobugcisa, kunye nezithuba kwimpilo yengqondo kunye nezomthetho ezilawulayo zifuna ukuqwalaselwa okuqhubekayo. Abagwebi, abagwebi, nabamisi-mthetho kufuneka baqonde indlela yokusebenzisa imigaqo ekhethayo ukuvala ezi zithintelo. Kuluntu olukhubazekileyo, le mfundiso ikhusela kunye nekrele, nto leyo, xa isetyenziswa ngobuchule, inokuguqula izenzo zombuso kunye nesidima sabo bonke.

Ukufundwa okubhekele phaya kwimbali yokuququzelela, jonga [[FLT: 0] Isiseko solwazi somthetho seZiko loshwankathelo lweNkundla. . I-ADA] Inethwekhi yesizwe[ inikezela izibonelelo kwisixhobo sokudlala phakathi kwe ADA kunye nokhuseleko lomgaqo-siseko. Kwimiba yakutshanje yeNkundla ePhakamileyo, ] Oyez[ inika uhlaluzo oluneenkcukacha lwetyala. Okokugqibela, [[[FLTLT:]] ALU] amalungelo okukhubazekayo [iphepha[FLT] ]]] igubugquthe iproti ye-igrognuign