Isiseko Senkqubela Efanelekileyo Kumthetho WaseMerika

Ingcamango yenkqubo efunekayo isebenza njengesiseko sesiseko somthetho wesigwebo waseMelika, iqinisekisa ukuba akukho mntu uhluthwa ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla ngaphandle kwemigaqo esesikweni. Ngoxa eli binzana libonakala kuMphengululo wesihlanu noweshumi elinesine, intsingiselo yalo iphenjelelwe kakhulu lutoliko lweNkundla ePhakamileyo ngaphezu kweenkulungwane ezimbini. Indaleko yenkqubo efunekayo ibonisa uxinezeleko oluqhubekayo phakathi kwegunya likarhulumente namalungelo omntu ngamnye, kunye neemeko ezibonisa ukujika kwemidatha yencwadi ezihlaziya imida yokusesikweni.

Imongezo inkqubo ayiyonkqubo emileyo. Ibandakanya zombini izikhuseli zeprocedical , ukuva, inkundla engakhethiyo, kunye neziqinisekiso ezincinci ezikhusela amalungelo athile asisiseko ekungeneleni korhulumente. INkundla ePhakamileyo ibisoloko ibambelele kwelokuba inkqubo efanelekileyo yingcamango ethambileyo, elungelelanisa ukutshintsha imilinganiselo yoluntu kunye nendlela izilangazelelo ezisingqongileyo ezisemngciphekweni. Ukuqonda indlela le migaqo esetyenzisiwe ngayo kufuna ukuxilongwa kwamatyala anyanzelelwa kwinkundla ukuba ichaze oko kufunwa yinkqubo efunekayo kwimo ethile ekhethekileyo.

Imvelaphi Yembali: Ukusuka KwiMagna Carta Ukuya KumGaqo-siseko

Ibinzana elithi "ukuya phambili kwinkqubo yomthetho" lavela okokuqala kwiMagna Carta yowe-1215, eyayivakalisa ukuba "akukho mntu okhululekileyo oza kubanjwa okanye afakwe entolongweni... ngaphandle komgwebo osemthethweni wabalinganayo okanye umthetho welizwe. Kwiinkulungwane, umthetho oqhelekileyo wamaNgesi waguqula le ngcamango yaba sisiqinisekiso somgaqo ofanelekileyo. Amarhamncwa aseMelika afumana le sithethe ngokuzuzwé kuso kuBhili-malungelo lwamalungelo. ISindululo seSihlanu (1791) sawuthintela ngokucacileyo urhulumente wesizwe ukuba angamniki nawuphi na umntu wobomi, okanye impahla "engenayo inkqubo efanelekileyo yomthetho." Emva kwemfazwe ye-Chunigasti, isiHlamgameterte (1868) sandisa lommiselo ofanayo kumazwe, ukwenza umgangatho wesizwe wokulawula umgangatho osisiko.

Kwinkulungwane yeshumi elinesithoba, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yayitolika ngokucuthekileyo inkqubo efunekayo, igxininisa ngokuyintloko kulungelelwano lwendawo. Ixesha leLochner (1905-1937) yabona ukusebenzisa kweNkundla inkqubo encinci efunekayo ukubetha imimiselo yezoqoqosho, kodwa loo ndlela yakhatywa kamva. Ukuqondwa kwale mihla kwenkqubo efunekayo kwavela kumalungelo abantu eNkundla yaseWarren kunye nenkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho, eyabangela ukuba kunyuke amatyala amaninzi ngoku achaza indlela esiphila ngayo.

Inkqubo Eqhelekileyo Eza Kulungiselelwa: Ilungelo Lokuviwa

Kelly (1970)

Ngeli xesha ingagutyungelwanga kwinqaku lokuqala, Goldberg v. Kelly ibalulekile ekuqondeni inkqubo efunekayo yesi sixhobo. INkundla yathi phambi kokuba imo igqibele inzuzo yentlalo-ntle yomamkeli, kufuneka inikezele ukuva okucacileyo. Esi sigqibo simiselwe ukuba inkqubela ifuna ithuba elibalulekileyo lokuviwa xa urhulumente ehlutha inzala ekhuselekileyo, naxa inzala ingumthetho onegunya kunento yesithethe. Ityala eliye lazisa uvavanyo lokulinganisela oluqhubekekayo lokukhokela inkqubo: iinkundla zivavanyanisa umdla wobuqu, umngcipheko wokungaphazaliswa ngenkqubo ekhoyo, kunye nomdla wolawulo.

Esi sicwangciso sesazulu solungiselelo, kamva esimiselwe ngokusesikweni ku uMathews v. Eldiridge (1976), isuke yaba ngumgangatho wokugqiba ukuba yiyiphi inkqubo efunekayo ngokwemithetho-siseko. IMathews, iNkundla yasebenzisa uvavanyo kwinkuselo yoKhuseleko lweNtlalo yaza yagqiba ukuba ukuva kwangaphambi komva akukhange kufuneke xa uhlolo lwexesha lommiselo lufanelekile. Isigqibo sacacisa ukuba inkqubo efunekayo ayilulo oluqinileyo kodwa ayilulo uphando olucacileyo lwenkqubo ebhaliweyo.

EGault (1967)

Phambi kwe IGault, amatyala abantwana ayengacwangciswanga kwaye ngokufuthi ayekhatywa ukuba akhuseleke ngokwesithethe. INkundla Ephakamileyo yayiguqula loo ndlela, ilawula ukuba abantwana abatyholwa ngokungathobeli banikwe amalungelo afanelekileyo okuquka isaziso sokumangalelwa, ekunene sokucebisa, ilungelo nxamnye nokuzibeka ngokwabo umva, kunye nethuba lokujamelana nokunqamleza i-ecamine. Le meko yandisa umzi ongundoqo wemibangxube yolwaphulo-mthetho kwimintwini ngaphambili eyayiphethwe njengezixhobo zombuso, iqonda ukuba iziphumo zobuntwana zinokuba mandundundu njengesohlwayo yezaphuli-mthetho.

Ilifa le Gault liyabonakala kwinkqubo yobulungisa obuncinane yorhulumente ngamnye. Ikwabonisa indlela efanelekileyo yokuguqula iquka amaqela akwicandelo eliphantsi ngaphambili. INkundla yaqiqa ngelokuba "iSindululo seshumi elinesine kunye neBhili yamaLungelo singeyabantu abadala kuphela," umgaqo oqhubeka ubumba amatyala abandakanya abantwana, amabanjwa, kunye nabanye abantu ababuthathaka.

Isenzo Sezaphuli - mthetho Nelungelo Lokucebisa

UGideon . Wainwright (1963)

Inqaku lokuqala libalaselisa ngokulungileyo Gideon njengendawo yokuphawula. Ityala lavela xa uClarence Earl Gideon, ibanjwa laseFlorida, wacela iNkundla ePhakamileyo emva kokukhanyelwa kwegqwetha ngenxa yokuba akanakukwazi ukuhlawula enye. INkundla nganye yathi ilungelo leSithandathu lokuLamlamla icebiso linelungelo elingundoqo elisebenzayo kumazwe akwiMbutho weMthethwe weMthethwenoshenxiso we-145. Imbono kaHugo Black yagxininisa ukuba "kwinkqubo yethu echasaphuli-mthetho, nawuphi na umntu ogoqweqwele inkundla, ongondlekileyo ukuba aqeshelwe igqwetha igqwethage ngokulungileyo, akanakuqinisekiswa ukuba anikwe isiluleko esilungileyo ngaphandle kokuba anikwe."

Gideon wahlengahlengisa isigqibo sangaphambili seNkundla ku-'. Brady' [1942], eyayivumele amazwe ukumisela ukuba amisele icebiso kwisiseko setyala. Umthetho wakhokelela ekudalweni kweenkqubo zokhuselo lukawonke-wonke ngaphaya kwelizwe kwaye wamisa ummangalelwa obalulekileyo ekululekeni ngamalungelo onke abalulekileyo olwaphulo-mthetho. Amatyala athe alungisa ilungelo lokuquka ukucetyo, ukugweba, ukugweba, kunye nokubhena kokuqala, nangona ubunjani bomelo buhlala bungumngeni oqhubekayo.

Miranda v. Arizona (1966)

Amatyala ambalwa amiselwe ngokwesithethe njengathi imanda v. Inkundla ePhakamileyo yagqiba kwelokuba ukuncina kwetyala kubandakanya ukunyanzeleka, kwaye ilungelo lokuLawula kwesihlanu lifuna ukhuseleko lobuhlanga. Izilumkiso eziqhelekileyo `````ilungelo lokuhlala uthulile''', ukuba nantoni na ethethwayo ingasetyenziswa nxamnye nawe, ilungelo lokuya egqwesini, kunye nelungiselelo lesiluleko ukuba awunako ukuhlawula omnye, licetyiwe ukukhusela ekucingeleni amalungelo akhe ngokungazi. UGqhinga Eliyintloko uEarl Warre Warre wabhala ukuba "iirhoxiwa angayisebenzisi ntetho, nokuba i-ecuriator okanye i-arch, ukuvavanyanisa, ukusukela ekusebenziseni i-gconsteast prognethingstingstings procial procialsssss procined productives"

[[FLT: 0] [[FLT:] imanda isilumkiso siye saba yinxalenye eqhelekileyo yenkqubo yamapolisa, nangona iNkundla iye yakrola ngaphandle kokhuseleko lukawonke-wonke ( New York v. Quarles[, 1984]) kwaye yavumela ukubuza ngaphandle kwezilumkiso zokuma okuqhelekileyo. Ngaphandle kokugxekwa komthetho kunye namatyala athile, Marada uhlala eyintsika efunekayo kwinkqubo efunekayo kwisigwebo solwaphulo-mthetho, iqinisekisa ukuba umthwalo ukwizikhundla lukurhulumente ukuqinisekisa oko kuxelwa ngokuzithandela.

Amanye Amatyala Ezaphuli - mthetho Akhethwayo

  • Mapp v. Ohio (1961)[FL:1] — Wasebenzisa umthetho owenziwe ngapha kwelizwe, wavala ubungqina obufunyanwa ngokukhangela okungekho ngqiqweni nangokuxhuzula.
  • Terry v.O.1968) — Imvume eqingqiweyo "yima kunye ne frisk" uphengululo olusekelwe ekukrokreleni okusengqiqweni, ukulinganisa amalungelo eSine Solawulo kunye nokhuseleko lwabaphathi-mikhosi.
  • Batson v. Kentucky (1986) — abatshutshisi abasetyenziswayo ekusebenziseni imingeni yokukhulula abagwebi abasekelwe kuhlanga, baxhasa ukhuseleko olulinganayo namalungelo amatyala afanelekileyo.

Inkqubo Esisiseko: Ukukhusela Inkululeko Esisiseko

Roe v. Wade (1973)

Inqaku lokuqala liquka Roe v. kodwa iNkundla yamkela ilungelo lomgaqo-siseko lobubanzi bobuqu ngokwaneleyo ukudibanisa isigqibo sebhinqa sokuphelisa ukukhulelwa. Elo lungelo labekwa kwi-Century Process Clause yoMmiselo we-1495, leyo iNkundla yabamba ikhusela "iimeko-ntle" inkululeko ekhoyo kwingcamango yenkululeko ecwangcisiweyo." IJaji uHarry Blackmun imbono yoluvo ifuna ilungelo lokufumana ilungelo lokuzimela ngokwesondo kwiimeko ezibandakanya umtshato, ukuzala, ukuvala, kunye nokuthintela, igqibela ukuba umdla wobomi obunokwenzeka wesizwe ukhusela inkululeko esemva kokuba ilungile.

[[FLT:] [[FLT:] inguMjikelo ophambili wenkqubo ephikisayo. Yatshintshwa i-Parenthooleary v. Casey, ethabathela indawo isakhiwo esilungeleleneyo esine "umthwalo onzima" umlinganiso, kwaye ekugqibeleni yalawulwa ngu [[FLT:] Dobbs v. Jackson'S Umanyano lwezempilo lwabafazi [[FLT:] 202], oluthi luthi lungafaki mvume yokukhupha ukuqhomfa nokubuyisela umba. Ingxoxo enzulu [[FLT] [FLT] [5]

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)

Inqaku lokuqala lichaza ngokufanelekileyo ukuba [[FLT: 0] wawa ngokusemthethweni [[FLT: 1] umtshato ongokwasemthethweni ongokwabelana ngokwesini kwilizwe lonke. Inkundla yathi ilungelo lokutshata liyilungelo elisisiseko phantsi kwe-Curtive Proces and Ukhuseleko luka-Cemetic Claus. UJaji Anthony Kennedy wagxininisa ukuba umtshato liqoshana elingundoqo lolungelelwano lwentlalo-ntlalonke, elibalulekileyo kwisidima somntu ngamnye ne-Esccurinication. Isigqibo sixhomekeke kwinkqubo efanayo yokuqiqashelanisa esetyenziswayo i-iloving v. [[FLT] [FLT] ingu-ethom], ingumthetho owenziwe ngomanyano kulawulo oludityanileyo kurhulumente. [[FLT]

Impembelelo ye yehlela ifikelela ngaphaya kokulingana komtshato. Yaqinisekisa ukuba iNkqubo elindelekileyo kaClaus ikhusela "ukhetho lobuqu olusesizikithini kwisidima somntu ngamnye kunye nesigqibo," ulwakhiwo oluye lwacelwa kwiimeko ezibandakanya amalungelo abazali, ukwenza izigqibo zonyango, kunye nokuthembeka komzimba. Isigqibo sikwabonisa ukudibanisa phakathi kwenkqubo efanelekileyo kunye nokhuseleko olulinganayo: ngelixa iNkuNkundla ihlalutya zombini iindidi, inkqubo efunekayo engaphantsi kwemiqathango ebambe isicini sesiseko esinikezelwe ukuqwala ingqiqo ekunene.

Ongezelelweyo Oonobumba benkqubela abalindelekileyo

  • Ukusuka kwi Virginia (1967)] — Ukuphelisa imiqathango yobuhlanga kumtshato njengokungathobeli inkqubo efunekayo nokhuseleko olulinganayo.
  • LAWREnce v. Texas (2003) — Phezulu — yajika umthetho we-sodomiki yaseTexas, iqonda ukuba abantu abadala banenkqubo efanelekileyo yokubandakanyeka kwihambo yesondo yabucala.
  • Shashington v. Glucksberg (1997) — yala inkqubo efanelekileyo yokuncedisa ukuzibulala, ilinganisela ulwandiso lwenkqubo efunekayo kumalungelo "asekelwe ngokunzulu kwimbali nesithethe salo hlanga."

Apho ingcaciso ebanzi nengaphantsi inqamleza

Asiyomeko nganye elingana kakuhle nodidi lweprocedtural okanye oluncinci. . [FULT] MATHEws v. Eldiridge intsika zombini: imisela uvavanyo lokulinganisela, kodwa izilangazelelo ezikhuselayo, kodwa zikhusela/iinzuzo. Ngokunjalo, i-Hamdi v. Rumsteld [2004] ibandakanya u-U.S. abami balapho njengendlela yokulwa notshaba. Inkundla yayifuna ukuba umgcini-majoni afumane isaziso esifanelekileyo semeko yakhe kunye nethuba lokukhuphisana phambi kokuba angene kwimeko yemfazwe. Imeko yemfazwe ibonakalisa nakunye imfazwe ekwakumele inikezelwe.

Enye indlela yokudibana ivela ku Boumediene v. Bush (2008), apho iNkundla yayisithi amabanjwa eGuantamo Bay anelungelo elisemthethweni-mgaqo-siseko le-habeas corpus/a isixokelelwano esifanelekileyo sokukhusela `nakuba ayebekwe ngaphandle komhlaba wase-U.S.'. Isigqibo siqinisekisiwe ukuba inkqubo efanelekileyo ayiyo kuphela ingcamango yengingqi; ibophela xa inkqubo karhulumente ilawula umntu ngamnye ngokwaneleyo.

Umgangatho Ochaphazelayo: Iingxaki Zangexesha Elidluleyo

Inkqubela iyaqhubeka iguquka ekuphenduleni kwiteknoloji entsha kunye neenguqu zentlalo. Inkundla ePhakamileyo iye yaxhathisa indlela ukhuseleko lwesithethe olusebenza ngayo ngexesha lamanani. Umzekelo, Riley v. California (2014] yabambelela kwisigqibo sokuba amapolisa afune isiqinisekiso sokuphendla iziqulatho zeselfowuni ebhaqweyo ukuze abanjwe, ngenxa yokuba iimfonomfono zale nyaka ziqulethe ubuninzi obukhulu bogcino-lwazi lobuqu. IJaji enkulu uRoberts ibhala ukuba "inyaniso yokuba ubugcisa ngoku ivumela umntu aphathe ulwazi olunjalo esandleni sakhe abenzi nalwazi olungalufanelenga lukhuselwe abaquququzeleli. Oku kuqiqashe imfuneko ye-Dastmersting, kodwa phantsi kwengqiqo eqikelelayo kwimigaqo efanelekileyo, nokuthotywa kwemithetho karhulumente.

Ngokufanayo, inkxalabo efunekayo ivela kwimeko yamasebe olawulo, umgaqo weqonga lezentlalo-ntle, kunye nobuchule obungeyoyamvelo obusetyenziswa ekugwebeni. IiNkundla zicelwa ngokwandayo ukuba zimisele ukuba yeyiphi inkqubo efunekayo xa i-algorithments yenza izigqibo ezichaphazela inkululeko, ityala okanye umsebenzi womntu. Ngelixa kungekho tyala liphezulu lithethe ngqo kwinkqubo efunekayo kwizigqibo zikarhulumente we-AlDindern, iinkundla ezisezantsi ziqalisa ukulwisana nemibandela yokukhanyisa, ikhethe, kunye nelungelo lokuvavanya iziphumo ze-algoric.

Isifo se-COVID [[FLT: 1] esine-19 sikwavavanywa inkqubo efanelekileyo. I-Eviction Moratoria, imiqathango yezonyango, kunye nemiqathango yongxamiseko kwiintlanganiso zikawonke-wonke konke kudala ukumangalelwa okuthi iprocedual kunye nento encinci efunekayo yaphulwa. INkundla isoloko ibotshelelwa kumagunya ezempilo kawonke-wonke kodwa ngamanye amaxesha ifumanise ukuba amanyathelo athile adlulele kude kakhulu, njengakwi- i-Roman Catholic Diocese of Brooklyn v. Cuomo, eyathi yabeka imidatho kwiinkonzo zonqulo. Ezi meko zibonisa ukuba imo ezifanelekileyo ayiyokusetyenziswa kwiimeko ezikhoyo.

Impembelelo Kwimfundo Yasemthethweni Nokukhuselwa Kwamatyala

Uphawu lwenkqubo efunekayo yemiqathango yesikolo somthetho. Bafundisa abafundi kungekuphela nje imigaqo ekhethekileyo kodwa nendlela yokutolika komgaqo-siseko: indlela yokulungelelanisa izilangazelelo, ukuchaza amalungelo asisiseko, kunye nokwahlula phakathi komongo owahlukeneyo weprocedefication. Le miqathango ikwanikezela izixhobo zokuxhasa. AmaMathews uvavanyo olulungeleleneyo lusetyenziswa rhoqo ngamagqwetha acekisa urhulumente angenelela iingenelo, izithintelo zesikolo, kwaneeparolevations. Inkqubo encinci yenkqubo efunekayo icet icet icet ecet yeprojectives icessss icet arlustrationsssss arightrified, intelligation, i-ogconstmist.

Ngaphandle kwenkundla, le mimiselo ikhuthaze utshintsho lomthetho. Umzekelo, amatyala aguqula iinkqubo zawo zobulungisa zolutsha emva GEURD, ihlaziywe izenzo zokuncina kwamapolisa emva imanda[, kwaye yandisa iinkqubo zokhuselo lukawonke-wonke emva [[FLT:]] [[FLT]]] Gideon[[. Amatyala akwaphembelela umthetho wamalungelo abantu ehlabathi lonke, namazwe amaninzi amukela izikhuseli ezifanayo kubamangali nabagwebi namaqela acudileyo.

Isiphelo: Inkqubela Enamandla Ezamkelekileyo

Isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo asiyonkqubo efanelekileyo eqokeleliweyo yempendulo ezinziweyo kodwa sisakhiwo sokubuza imibuzo elungileyo. Ukusuka kwiimfuno zesaziso zamandulo nokuva kukhuseleko olugqithisileyo lwenkqubo efunekayo, iNkundla iqaphele ukuba okusesikweni akunakuncitshiswa kwinkqubo emiselweyo. Amatyala afana [[FLT: 0] , , [FLT] Gideon[[[FL:3], [[FLT:]], [[FLT]] [[FLT]] [iiiiiiindlela zo]] ezisetyenziswa ngabantu. , [[FLT:]], [[FLT]]] kunye [FLT]]

Njengokuba ibutho liqhubeka litshintsha ngezantsi ngobugcisa, izithethe eziguquguqukayo, kunye nenkqubo engabonwanga kwangaphambili, iza kuhlala ingummandla wokhuphiswano olusebenzayo. Ukuvuma kweNkundla ePhakamileyo ukuphinda ilandele umzekelo, njengokuba kubonwa ku iiDobs[, igxininisa ukuba kwaneyona mimiselo ithengwayo ingacelw'ingxaki. Kodwa eyona nto ibalulekileyo ihlala ihleli: wonke umntu, akukho meko yakhe, inelungelo lokuphathwa ngokusesikweni phantsi komthetho. Ukuqonda amatyala alo njongo ayenze lento ayiyo ayimfuneko kulwazi olusemthethweni kuphela kodwa nakumntu ngamnye onqwenela ukukhusela amalungelo omGaqonga kwimi.

Oovimba Abangakumbi

  • [[UMTL: 0] Iprojekthi ye-Oyez – Isandi kunye nokushwankathelwa kwamatyala eNkundla Ephakamileyo.
  • [[UMTL: 0] Iqumrhu lolwazi lomthetho - Isixokelelwano esilindelekileyo – Inkcazo ecacileyo yemfundiso.
  • Isakhiwo selizwe esiphambili: Ityala lophawu – izinto zemfundo kwizigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo.
  • UmGaqo-siseko weUnited States: A Guide and Commentary – Imbekiselo efikelelekayo yemigaqo yomgaqo-siseko.