Indima Yoxwebhu Lwembali Kwinkcazelo Yoqobo

Ingqiqo yomthetho yantlandlolo yenkqubo efuna ukuchaza umGaqo-siseko we-United States ngokwentsingiselo owawunayo ngexesha lokumkelwa kwawo. Kunokuba zijonge umGaqo-siseko njengoxwebhu oluphilayo olunentsingiselo eguqukayo nebutho labantu, iingcali zoqobo ziphikisa ngelithi umbhalo walo ufanele umiswe kwaye iijaji zibotshwe ngentsingiselo yantlalo-ntle yantlalo-ntle okanye injongo yokuqala yabalawuli bawo. Ngaphandle kwala maxwebhu, ezi ncwadi zinokuthetha ngokunzulu ngamaxwebhu embali. Le mithombo iphambili //imvelaphi esekelwe kumaphetshana nenkcazelo yephepha kwimibhalo yemithetho-gractives kunye nemibathathi-ms-mss-msssssssss ezicacileyo zokufumana oko kuthethwa ngabo babhale, zinconywa, zivunywa, zisebenzisa ezona zinto kuqala. Ngaphandle kokuba ezi ncwadi zingena ngqalelo olufanelekileyo ekuchazeni kwezomthetho. Ukuqonda ezi ngxelo zezomthetho zezomthetho zezomthetho kumele zigqibe ukuba zigqibo, iinkundla ezingondonga, ezingonwayo naziphi naziphi naziphi naziphi naziphi naziphi

Iintsika Ezimbini Zobugcisa Bokuqala

Intsingiselo kawonke-wonke yantlandlolo

Ubalo-magama asilogama elinye. Izikolo ezikhulu ezimbini ziphumele: intelekelelo yokuqala kunye nentsingiselo yantlandlolo yoluntu. Injongo yokuqala ibhekisa kwiinjongo zomxholo zabalawuli `i James Madison, Aleksandro Hamilton, okanye uGeorge Mason ngokobuqu ukholelwa ukuba ibinzana elithile elithethwayo. Le ndlela ixhomekeke kakhulu kwiincwadi zabucala ezifana noonobumba, iincwadi zoonobumba, iintetho zomthetho, namaphetshana avela kwiConvention yezomGaqo-siseko. Iinjongo zoqobo, eziye zaba zezona ziphambili ukususela kuJajinin Scalia, okanye u-Alexanduva, endaweni yoko umntu onengqondo ngexesha anokuwuqonda ngalo. Le mbono ithetha kwimithombo ebanzi: izichazichazi magama, iingxoxo eziqhelekileyo zezopolitiko, iingxelo zobupolitiki, kunye nolwimi lomthetho lwemeko. Zombini, zombini, izikolo, zixhomekeke kulwazi lwamaxwebhu lwasentlalo lwembali.

Iintlobo Ezingundoqo Zoxwebhu Lwembali Nendlela Ezisetyenziswa Ngayo

Iphepha loluhlu lomanyano

Mhlawumbi ingqokelela ekhankanyiweyo yamaxwebhu akwi jurisprudence yantlandlolo yiMaphepha aBalawuli abaNqumrhu. Ezincoko zingamashumi asibhozo anesihlanu, ezibhalwe ngu Publius (iMadis, ne Jay) phakathi ko 1787 no 1788, zazijoliswe ekunyanzeleni i New Yorkrs ukuxhasa uMgaqo-siseko ocetyiweyo. Abagwebi abaqalayo bajika rhoqo ukuze baqonde intsingiselo yezinto ezithile. [FT] [FT] [46] kumzekelo, [FT] umba othelekelelwe yi-[FFOK].[3][3] Engumthetho othenjiweyo (19]).[4]

Iingxoxo zokwahlulwa koMgaqo-nkqubo

Iingxelo zengxoxo kwiindibano zephondo ezithintela imfazwe. Urhulumente ngamnye waba nendibano yokuvota kumGaqo-siseko, yaye ezi ngxoxo zapapashwa (nangona zisoloko zikho ngokulibaziseka nokuhlelwa). Ingxoxo ityhila indlela umGaqo-siseko owaqondwa ngayo ngamadoda akhetha ukuyithabatha. Kwintsingiselo yokuqala yoluntu, ezi ngxelo zibaluleke kakhulu kuneengcinga zangasese zabalawuli ngenxa yokuba zibonisa ukuqonda kweratifis kunye nokuzinziswa kwabantu abanike igunya lawo elisemthethweni. Umzekelo, [[FTrect:0] [Flulkloch]. Mary [1819], iJastivelms ibhekise intetho yakhe ebanzi kwi-Roundingssss provicessssssssss, ithetha i-Rheaderns (intshing) kunye ne-Genethiair Genetics projectives) echaza i-moduart (ir Genethi ye-Genecriall).

Iingxelo Zomthetho Zamandulo Nemithetho

Izenzo zeNgqungquthela yokuqala (1789-1791) zidla ngokuthathwa njengendlela yokucacisa yoMgaqo-siseko. Uninzi lwazo ezikwafanayo zasebenza kuloo ngqungquthela, kunye nemithetho eyadluliselwayo ityhila indlela abakuqonda ngayo ukufikelela kolawulo lwabo. Umzekelo, iSivumelo soMgaqo-siseko soMbutho weSikhulu (1789) sasungula isakhiwo senkundla yesizwe kwaye saquka amalungiselelo akhanyisayo kukuqonda kwantlalo nqaku III. Ngokufanayo, iAlien kunye neSed Revotion yewaka le-1798 ziye zafundwa ukufumanisa intsingiselo yokuqala yentetho yokuqala yoMbenzo. Iijaji ze-Oprist Digist Digist.

Iinkcazo ZeBlackstone Nomthetho Oqhelekileyo WesiNgesi

Izixhasi kunye neeratifiers zazingenelwe kumthetho oqhelekileyo wamaNgesi, kwaye uMnu William Blackstone's Commentaries kwiMithetho yaseNgilani (1765-1769) zasetyenziswa njengencwadi ephambili esemthethweni kwilizwe laseMelika. Amalungu akwiBlackstone ukukhangela umongo wemithetho-siseko efana “ngenkqubo,”“ ngokuqhubekayo,” “indlela engaqhelekanga,” "i-gcule nento engaqhelekanga,”" kwi iHeller , umzekelo, uSigqeba oluzinikele kakhulu kwingxoxo yeBlackstone yemissss yemin ephantsi komthetho yasekunene phantsi kwendlela yomthetho wamaNgesi. Inkcukusebenza ngokuchasana yezomthetho eziqhelekileyo, kunye nomthetho oqhelekileyo, kunye nolwaphulo-mthetho-Genearthreans, kunye nolwaphulo-mthetho, umzekelo, i-sc.

Iincwadi Zobuqu Zezakhelo Nezamayeza Alwayo

Uqhagamshelwano lwangasese kunye noludindo lunikezela ngefestile kwiinjongo eziphambili zomntu ngamnye. Ngelixesha abalandeli bentsingiselo yoluntu lokuqala belulumkile ngokuthembela kule mithombo, banokuba luncedo ekuqondeni intelekelelo ezingasemva ezayila umbhalo. Amaphepha kaJames Madison, Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, noGeorge Washington aye agxininiswa kakhulu. Axabisekile kakhulu amaxwebhu eAnti-Fedalists (* ii-opnances zomGaqo-siseko onjengoBrutus, Cato, noFederal famil Modern (ngokuba agxininisa oko abagxeki bemGastia ngokufuno) babekunyanzela abaquququzeleli boluko ukuba bacacise intsingiselo yoluvo lokuqala.

Impembelelo Yezigqibo Zokugweba

Umthetho wesiHlomelo sesibini

Umzekelo obalaseleyo wakutshanje wobuGcisa bembali bokwenziwa kwencwadi yembali: iNkundla ePhakamileyo yeNkundla yisigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo [i-Gaqo-siseko] se-Columbia v. Heller (2008). Ukubhalela uninzi, uMahluleli Scalia waqhuba uhlolisiso olupheleleyo lwembali: iBrill of the premist, Blackstone, umgaqo-ography, umva we-omatina, umgaqo-siseko wangaphambili wase-Melika, njengeencwadi ye-St. George Tucker, kwaye kwaneencwadi yezomthetho ye-19 yenkundla yenkulungwane. Wagqiba kwelokuba uGastritemGenear Demplate akhusele ilungelo lokuba nezixhobo lomntu ngamnye, angafunda inkonzo ye-Alvian. Ingxelo yeNtemplatein ibhalwe nguJohn sytmond , kwakhona kwiingxelo zeNtemplikethi yeNtemental.

Umanyano noCelass worhwebo

iUnited States v. Lopez (1995] kunye ne-United States v. Morrison [2000], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yawisa imithetho yesizwe njengegqitha amandla eBhunga lezentengiselwano. Iimbono ezininzi, ezibhalwe nguMphathiswa William Rehnquist, zadwelisa kakhulu ukuqonda okungokwembali “umzi, kunye“ phakathi kwamaZwe amaninzi. [FLT] [iiiiiiiiindlela] yokuyila imicimbi yezorhwebo. [4FLT] Iingxelo ezininzi, iingxelo zeConvention yezomGaqo, kunye nokutolika kobuzwe kwenkcomza ukuya kwiBhunga lobuGokhesa ukuya kuMbutho oceleleneyodwa kuphela, hayi kumsebenzi worhwebo, eziphawulwe kulawulo lobushishino lwezo lwezenteko yenkcubezo yenkqu. [ip] [ifo: 5] Iingxelo zentensiti yeN

Amandla Obuongameli Nelungelo Elilawulayo

Inkundla yeNkqutyana ye Homeland Security v. Regents yeYunivesithi yaseKhalifoniya[FLT:] [2020], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yahlola ububanzi begunya eliphetheyo ekufudukeni kwabantu. Ngoxa isigqibo saphethuka kwinkcazelo ye-statostotion, uThomas weSivumelwano weJaji uThomas wasebenzisa ingqiqo yenkqulo yangaphambili ukuphikisa ukuba umthetho karhulumente uthathe ixesha elide ugunyaze umgaqo-mongameli ekunyanzelweni kwemimiselo yokufuduko. Wacaphula izenzo zangaphambili, iingxoxo ze-Alien neSedgiokie, kunye noqheliselo lwembali lokubuyela kumphathi we-ofisi yeWashington. Lo mcimbini ubonisa ukuba amaxwebhu embali asetyenziswa ukutolikela umGatho-siseko kuphela kodwa kwano ukuqonda umgangatho wokuqala wemimiselo wesizwe.

Ucelomngeni Lwendlela Yokusebenzisa Iincwadi Zembali

Ingxelo Engaphelelanga Nempikiswano

Amaxwebhu embali adla ngokungacacisi. Iingxelo ezininzi ezisuka kwiingxoxo ze-ratiation zalahleka, zahlelwa ngabapapashi abarhoxi, okanye azizange zibhalwe. Umthetho odumileyo wokufihla imfihlo kwiNdibano yezomGaqo-siseko wawuthetha ukuba akukho ngxelo yasemthethweni yengxoxo yomgangatho; sixhomekeke kumaphetshana azimeleyo kaJames Madison, awawahlaziya kwiminyaka kamva. Le mikhosi ingaphelelanga igweba ukuhlola ukuba ngowuphi umthombo othembekileyo nongummeli. Ngaphezu koko, amaxwebhu ahlala ephikisana ngamanye amaxesha. Iingxoxo zomdla wamazwe ahlukeneyo zityhila ukuqondwa okugqwetha irejiyo kwerejingi efanayo. Ijaji egwebi yesizwe kufuneka igqibe enoba iyalisela phambili okanye ifuna ingeniso ebanzi.

Ingxaki Yokuhambela Phambili Nokungachani Kwabantu

Abahlalutyi bathi abagwebi bale mihla, nokuba bakhuthele kangakanani, abanakukuphepha ukufunda amaxabiso akhoyo kwimibhalo yeshumi elinesibhozo- yenkulungwane. Kwaye isenzo sokukhetha amaxwebhu embali agxininiswayo sibandakanya ukhetho oluchazayo olunokuphenjelelwa yiziphumo ezikhethelwe ngumgwebi. Ngaphezu koko, amagama afana “umkhommerce,” kunye“ nezixhobo,” ne-“zingaqhelekanga" zazineentsingiselo zeshumi elinesibhozo zenkulungwane ezahlukileyo ezisenokuba nzima ukuphinda zifunyanwe ngokuchanekileyo. Abaphengululi abanjengoNjingalwazi Paul Brestris baye babonisa ukuba intsingiselo yokuqala iphantsi kwedemorte·note", kulula ukuba ubungqina obungokwembali ukusombulula imibuzo emininzi yangoku.

Indima Yokuqhatha Nokukhanyisa

Imposiso yemfundo nemizekelo ingangqubana. Ukuba isigqibo sangaphambili seNkundla Ephakamileyo siqwalaselwe ngokuphosakeleyo intsingiselo yokuqala, ngaba kamva abagwebi bafanele banamathele kweso siqalo okanye balungise impazamo? Olu xinezeleko lukhulu kwiimeko ezifana Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo[ (1954]), eyathi yalawula Pluvelvev.[[FLT]][FLT]][966]] [1866]) kodwa ngokunjalo isuka kwintsingiselo yokuqala ye 145. Inkoliso yanamhlanje imkela indima ye-screast decis, ingakumbi yemiqathango ende. Kodwa basasebenzisa amaxwebhu embali ukuphikisa imizekelo ethile eshwabangeyimpazamo. Umzekelo, uTrencerence, uthelela ngotyiote, ugcino-mathetho lwembali oluthe `F.[5]

Amanani asuka kwiMifuziselo engeyoyoya-Origenalist

Ukugatywa KomGaqo-siseko Ophilayo

Abaxhasi bomgaqo-siseko ophilayo baphikisa ngokuthi abaseki bomGaqo-siseko ngokwabo balindele ukuba umgaqo-siseko utshintsheke kwiimeko. Bakhomba kuMgangatho oyimfuneko noMhleko ka-Claus, ulwimi olubanzi lweSihloko, kunye neNkqutyana V ukuphembelela ukuphikisa ukuba ukuqonda kwasekuqaleni akumele kubopheke. IJaji uStephen Breyer, kwincwadi yakhe I-Active Liberty [, iphikisa ukuba amaxwebhu embali ayimfuneko kodwa kufuneka alungelelaniswe neemfuno zalekiso zale mihla. Abagxeki bembali bakwathi iingxelo zembali zibhalwe ngamaxwebhu aphezulu amhlophe ababenamakhoboka.

Impikiswano Engomthetho Wedemokhrasi

Bambi abaphengululi baphikisa ngelithi ubuQuqu abunademokhrasi kuba budibanisa ibutho lanamhlanje nesandla esifileyo sangaphambili. IJaji uWilliam Brennan ngokudume ngokuyichasa ingcamango yobukho bantlandlolo “njengeyokuziphakamisa njengokuthobeka.” Izazi zoqobo ziphendula ngokuthi ukuthembeka kuMgaqo-siseko obhaliweyo kungumo-siseko obhaliweyo kungundoqo wolawulo lwedemokhrasi kuba ithetha imvume enikelwa ngabantu abalugunyazisayo olu xwebhu. Ingxelo zembali, zithi, bukuphela kobungqina obuzinyokelelo.

Ucelomngeni Lokungaqiniseki

Umphengululi wasemthethweni uCass Sunstein kunye nabanye baphikisa ngelithi amaxwebhu embali asoloko edida kakhulu ukuba angavelisi iimpendulo eziziimpendulo. Kwiphepha ngalinye elixhasa iiNkcubeko zoLawulo loMkhosi ozimeleyo ezixhasa enye indlela yokuchaza, kusenokubakho intelekelelo yeAnti-Federalist ecebisa okuchaseneyo. Le ngxoxo inye ingafundwa ukuxhasa icala ngalinye lemeko yangoku. Amaxwebhu oqobo aphikisa ukuba ngoxa amanye amanqamlezo ekho, amalungiselelo amaninzi omgaqo-siseko wemithetho aneentsingiselo ezicacileyo zoqobo, qhakuva, imfuneko yokuba umongameli abe neminyaka engama-30-5 ubudala. Amaxwebhu embali anika isithintelo esinamandla kwiimeko ezicacileyo nakumgangatho omxinwa ocacileyo.

Ukhokelo Olusebenzisekayo Kwabaphandi

Ukubona Imithombo Enokuthenjwa

Kunabani na ofuna ukusebenzisa amaxwebhu angokwembali kuhlalutyo lomthetho, kubalulekile ukukhangela uxwebhu olugunyazisiweyo. Ithala leencwadi le Congress [[FLT: 0] Founders Online umqulu unika ukufumaneka okukhoyo kumaphepha afakelwe kakhulu. Iprojekthi yeAvanon eYale [[FLT]] ikhupha iinguqulelo zomanani zoMbutho wePhondo, umgaqo-siseko, kunye namaxwebhu okuqala kazwe [[FLTLT:]. ICredium (amaxwebhu angaphambili). Xa ezi zibonelelwa ngokwesicwangciso zokuqala zifumaneka kwithala leencwadi zomthetho zomthetho.

Imithombo emininzi enqamlezayo

Akukho xwebhu lunye kufuneka luxhomekeke kulo xa ulwahlulo. Ukuqiqa koqobo kunamandla xa kukho imithombo emininzi ezimeleyo kwicala elifanayo: iPhondo loLuntu, intetho yolwakhiwo, ummiselo wangaphambili wequmrhu, kunye nesichazi-magama sangoku sonke sixhasa ukufundwa okufanayo. Ngokuchaseneyo, ukuba imbali yahlulwe, abagwebi abaphambili kufuneka bachaze isizathu sokuba banikwe ilungelo elikhethekileyo kwimithombo ethile phezu kwabanye. Ukucaca oku kungumyalelo obalulekileyo okhuthazwa yinkqubo yenzululwazi.

Isiphelo

Amaxwebhu embali asisiseko sengqiqo yomthetho yamandulo. Ukusuka kwiManyano yamaPhepha kunye nenkxalabo yoMbutho wamaSizwe ukuya kumagqabaza eBlackstone kunye nemithetho yamandulo karhulumente, ezi mithombo inikela isiseko esicacileyo sokumisa oko umGaqo-siseko wawukuthetha xa uthathiwe. Ngoxa inkqubo yolwazi ngezolwazi ijongene neengxaki ezinzulu ````iiiingxelo ezipheleleyo'', ukuchaza ucalucalucalulo-calulo-calulo-calulo-calulo-calulo-calulo-calulo' kunye nokungavisisana nemigaqo esemthethweni esemthethweni, inika isiseko isiseko esisisiseko esisisiseko sokufumana isiseko sokwenza ukuba kubaluleke kusini nasiphi nabani na oqhubeka ukusebenzisa iindlela zobucala zokulawula amalungelo empahleni, amandla olawulo oluphezulu, ukuhlolisisa amaxwebhu embaliniknakusebenza nje kuphela kodwa ukuqheliswa komthetho wemihla ngemihla yemiGwa. Ukuqonda ezo zinto zisetyenziswa ngomthetho waseMerika.[9]