Ubungozi obuphinda-phindiweyo, obaziwa kwiinkqubo ezininzi zomthetho njengo izikhonkwane ezisemthethweni [ngesiXhosa] (ngesiXhosa "kuphinda kabini kuMgaqo-siseko ongomnye"), lukhuselo olusisiseko olukhusela umntu ekumangalelweni, ukuzanywa, okanye ukusohlwaywa okungaphezulu kanye ngenxa yetyala elinye. Nangona lo mgaqo umiselwe kakuhle kwimithetho yasekhaya esemthethweni, "ngokufana noMmiselo weSihlanu kuMgaqo-siseko we-siseko weUnited States okanye iSicwangciso se 50 samaTshadolo samalungelo angundoqo eEuropean `Its''. Umthetho wamazwe ngamazwe ngamazwe uqikelelo oluphinda-phindeneyo, izivumelwano eziphambili zezivumelwano zemithetho yezomthetho, ukukhuselwa komthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho, nokubekwa komthetho womthetho owehlabathi lonke, ukuphindwa kwemithetho-onke, ukuvavanywa kwemithetho yemithetho yezomthetho, ityala eliphuma-mthetho, ityala eliphindinayo, eliphuma-mthetho, eliphindinayo, eli

Ukuphuhliswa Kwembali Yobubi Obenziwe Kabini Kumthetho Wezizwe Ngezizwe

Imvelaphi yengozi ephindwe kabini ingagcinwa emva komthetho wamaRoma kwaye kamva kumthetho oqhelekileyo wamaNgesi, apho ukucelwa kwamalungelo omgaqo-siseko kungumthetho wale nkonzo kunye ne-'FUTUTfois shops's jagushops' ityala lesibini [[ ukuvalwa kwetyala lesibini emva kokugwetywa okanye ukuqinisekiswa. Nangona, ukudityaniswa kwalo mgaqo kwizivumelwano zamalungelo abantu zamazwe ngamazwe ngamazwe kukuphuhliswa kwesi sizathu esitsha, ukuvela kwiziphumo zemfazwe yehlabathi II. Umzekelo, kuphakamisa imibuzo entsokothekis' nokuba ngaba abantu banokuvavanywa kwakhona emva kwenkundla yezizwe ngezizwe emva kokuba ityala. Nangona umgaqo ungagunyaziswanga ngokupheleleyo ngelo xesha, imfuneko yokuthintelwa ngokuphindaphindwa kwetyala.

ISindululo soMbutho Wehlabathi Lonke saMalungelo Oluntu (UDHR) sowe-1948 asikhankanyi ngokucacileyo iingozi eziphindwe kabini, kodwa sabeka isiseko sobulungisa obusesikweni kwiGatya 10, eliqinisekisa ukuchotshelwa ngokusesikweni nokuchotshelwa kwabantu ngokubanzi. Isivumelwano sokuqala esidibanisayo sezizwe ngezizwe ngezizwe ukuba siquke ilungiselelo elicacileyo lengozi ephindwe kabini yayiyiSivumelwano seZizwe Ngezizwe samaLungelo aMasini nakwezobupolitika (ICCCPR), esamkelwe ngokusemthethweni ngo19666 yaye saqalisa ukusebenza ngo-19662. Ukususela ngoko, izixhobo zamalungelo abantu ezikwingingqi zilandele ngokufanelekileyo, ngamnye ulungelelanisa umgaqo okhethekileyo wezomthetho kunye nezopolitiko. Imbali equluvo yalenza imigudu yamatyala ekwanyani emmandleni ngokugqibele ekulungiseni kobulungisa xa kuvela ubungqina obutsha okanye ekungalawuleni.

Imigaqo-nkqubo yokukhusela ikhorali kwiZibonelelo zaMalungelo abantu

Ngoku izivumelwano eziliqela eziphawulekayo zisenza siqiniseke ukuba kukho ingozi ephindwe kabini, nangona ulwimi nobungakanani obuchanekileyo bungafani. Ngeli ngezantsi, sihlolisisa ezona zixhobo zinempembelelo.

Umnqophiso Wezizwe Ngezizwe Ngamalungelo Asekuhlaleni Nawamapolitiki (ICCPR)

Inqaku 14, isiqendu 7 se-ICCPR sithi: Akukho mntu oza kubekwa ityala okanye ohlwaywe kwakhona ngenxa yetyala asele egwetywe okanye agwetywe ngalo ekugqibeleni okanye angabi natyala ngokuvumelana nomthetho kunye nenkqubo yesohlwayo yelizwe ngalinye. Eli lungiselelo libophelelekile kumaphondo ali-173. IKomiti yamagunya agunyazisa umnqophiso. Isivumelwano se-I-I-ICCPR sobuliso, ikhuphe uNjengelelo lwe-32 ngelungelo lokuvavanywa okulungileyo, elicacisa umlinganiselo weSigaba 14(7). Ikomiti icacisa ukuba ukukhuselwa kwezigwebo ezipheleleyo, iinjongo ezingabhekisi kuso ezingeso sisasi sibheno. Noko ke, ayikhange inyanise ityala lokunga tyala (inyaniso siphendule) ngenxa yemithetho elungiselelwe ngobulungisa.

Okubalulekileyo kukuba, i-ICCPR yemiqathango ephindwe kabini isebenza kwimo enye. Ayisebenzi, ebusweni bayo, ityala lesibini ngemeko efanayo, /imeko eyahlukileyo (i-rea enentsingiselo ebalulekileyo yolwaphulo-mthetho lwamazwe ngamazwe. Noko ke, iKomiti yamaLungelo oluntu ikhuthaze amazwe ukuba aqwalasele lo mgaqo kwiimeko zentsebenziswano yezizwe ngezizwe.

Isivumelwano SaseYurophu Samalungelo Abantu (ECHR) – Umthetho OnguNombolo 7

Inqaku lesi-4 lemithetho yokuziphatha No. 7 kwi-ECHR linika: " Akukho namnye oza kubekwa ityala okanye ohlwaywe kwakhona kwiinkqubo zolwaphulo-mthetho phantsi kolawulo lwelizwe elinye ngenxa yetyala asele ekhululwe okanye agwetywe ngokuhambelana nomthetho kunye nenkqubo yesohlwayo yalo Rhulumente. INkundla yaseYurophu yamalungelo abantu ivelise iJurisprince etyebileyo kweli lungiselelo. Iimeko ezingundoqo ziquka uSowelhin v.[FLT] ., apho iNkugqiba ukuba imoqokohlo isekelwe kwizenzo ezingoko zomthetho ezizimbini ezizidityanileyo okanye ezingomthetho ezifanayo.

Umthetho womthetho wesizwe uNo. 7 ukwachaza ukuba ilungelo alikuthinteli ukuvulwa kwakhona kwengxoxo ukuba izibakala ezintsha okanye ezisandul' ukufunyanwa, okanye isiphene esisisiseko kwiinkqubo zangaphambili, singachaphazela isiphumo. Ngaphezu koko, ilungiselelo lisebenza kuphela kulawulo lwelinye ilizwe, lishiya kuvuleke amathuba okuvavanywa kwesibini kwelinye ilizwe okanye yinkundla yezizwe ngezizwe. Oku bekungumbandela wengxoxo, ingakumbi kumongo wolwazi lweYurophu eGuqula i-Warrants kunye nomgaqo wokuqaphelana.

INdibano YaseMelika Yamalungelo Abantu

Inqaku lesi-8, umhlathi 4 weZiko lamaLungelo aBantu laseMerika uthi: " Umntu otyholweyo okhululwe ngesigwebo esingagunyaziswanga akazukubekwa phantsi kwetyala elitsha ngenxa yesizathu esifanayo. Inkundla ye-American-Continean Rights itolike elilungiselelo ngokubanzi. Allenacid Arellano v. [2006] [iNku, iNkukholelwa ukuba ingumngcipheko ophindwe kabini isebenza kwimithetho ekwayiyo eluncedo ekumangalelweni amalungelo abantu, nangona eli lingummandla entsokothile. Ili lithetha ukuba isigwebo sokugqibelela esitsha asinako ukuphinde siphinde siphinde sivulwe phantsi kwe-ICRCRCR, ngoko ke ityala elithe yamkele ukugwetyelwa kwetyala lomthetho othelela ukuchana.

Ezinye Iingcebiso Zengingqi

[[NTLT:0] Isicatshulwa sase-Afrika kuMalungelo Oluntu nawabantu asiqulathanga igalelo elicacileyo lengozi ephindwe kabini, kodwa iKhomishini yaseAfrika kuMalungelo Oluntu nabantu ibonise ukukhuselwa kwelungelo ukuya ekulingweni okusesikweni phantsi kweQumrhu 7. [[FLT:]] ISicatshulwa samaLungelo [2] samaLungelo [amalungelo] kumalungelo abantu [[[FLTLT:3]]] siquka ilungiselelo elikwiQumrhu le-19 eliqinisekisa ilungelo elingazamcinywa kabini ngenxa yetyala elinye, nangona iindlela zokunyanzeleka kwalo ziphucuthe kancinane. [[FLT]] ISibo samaLungelo angundoqo [Foct:] [Flate] [FLT], kwiQumlk-All, kwiGrom, eliqula iNguqulelo eli-50 elizinzi elithe "iiiiiiiiiian, elichazwe ngokucacitywisiweyo yiNkube yeMiba yeNkubelo yeMiba ye

Umda Nemilinganiselo Yomgaqo

Ngoxa izivumelwano zamalungelo abantu zinikela ukhuseleko oluqatha, umlinganiselo wengozi ephindwe kabini awuphelelanga ngokupheleleyo.

Uvavanyo lwe-"Samese"

Imbambano ebalulekileyo yile ingu "ityala elifanayo". Iinkundla zesizwe kunye namaqumrhu esivumelwano amkele iimvavanyo ezahlukeneyo. Abanye bajolise ingqalelo kumacandelo asemthethweni olwaphulo-mthetho (iimeko ezingokwasemthethweni ze-"iNkundla yaseYurophu yamalungelo abantu), ngoxa ezinye, njengeNkundla yamalungelo abantu, zijonge kwihambo engaphantsi. Indlela yokugqibela ibanzi kwaye ikhusela abantu ukuba bangabanjwa phantsi kwemiboniso engokwasemthethweni eyahlukeneyo ukwenzela isenzo esinye. Umzekelo, umntu oqhuba ngokungakhathaliyo aze abulale umntu ohamba ngemoto angabekwa icala ngokutshabhisa kwelinye icala kodwa ngokubangela ukufa ngokuqhuba elinye. Phantsi kovavanyo lwehambo, ukutshutshiswa kwesibini kungathintelwa ukuba okokuqala kuphele kwisenzo sokuvala okanye ukugweba.

Izahluka-hlukeneyo Zobungqina Obutsha Okanye Iimeko Ezigqwethekileyo

Izivumelwano ezininzi zivumela ukuphinda zivulwe ityala ukuba kukho ubungqina obunamandla bokuphunyelelwa kokusesikweni. I-ICCPR'S General Gqibaza No. 32 iphawula ukuba iGatya 14(7) "akwaleli ukuvulwa kwakhona kwezenzo zolwaphulo-mthetho ngenxa yemfaneleko yobulungisa." i-ECHR’S Protocol No. 7 ichaza ngokucacileyo ukuba ilungiselelo alichaphazeli ukuphinda kutyhilwa ukuba ngaba kukho izibakala ezintsha okanye isiphene esingundoqo. Noko ke, i-American Convention, njengoko itolikwa yiNtempila yeNkundla ye-American, isoloko ivala ukuvulwa kwakhona kwetyala engavunywangamkeliyo, ngaphandle kokuba kwimeko ezilinganiselwe njengenkohliso okanye ukonakala kolwaphulo-mthetho.

Ibhanti eliphindwe kabini

Mhlawumbi eyona nto ibalulekileyo kukungaqiniseki kwezivumelwano zamalungelo abantu kukuba ityala lesibini likwimeko enye. Oku kuthetha ukuba umntu okhululweyo okanye ogwetywe kwelinye ilizwe angabekwa ityala ngenxa yehambo efanayo kwelinye ilizwe, ngaphandle kokuba isivumelwano esahlukileyo okanye umgaqo (njengemithetho yolwamkelo lwamalungelo omntu) unika imvume. Lo msantsa ubangela ingxaki enkulu kulwaphulo-mthetho olunjengokonakala, ukurhwebelana ngeziyobisi, kunye nobugrogrisi, apho amazwe amaninzi anokubekwa igunya khona. Ukuthetha ngako, izivumelwano ezithile ezilandelayo nezininzi zibandakanya amalungiselelo okuphathelele isigwebo sokugqibela sangaphandle, kodwa akukho mthetho wehlabathi lonke.

Ingcamango Ephindwe Kabini Kulwaphulo - mthetho Lwezizwe Ngezizwe

Umgaqo wengozi ephindwe kabini ukwasebenza kumthetho wezizwe ngezizwe wolwaphulo-mthetho, apho ibizwa ngokuba zizikhonkwane kwi-simu . Iinkundla zezizwe ngezizwe, njengeNkundla ye-International Criminal (ICC), i-IC, i-Internal Criminal yeyangaphambili iYugoslavia (ICTY), kunye ne-International Criminal Tribunal eRwanda eRwanda (ICTRT), iye yavelisa eyayo imithetho yayo.

Umthetho WaseRoma WeNkundla Yezaphuli - mthetho Zezizwe Ngezizwe

Inqaku le-20 leRome Signate, lithiywe u-Nebis kwi-igem, linika: Akukho mntu oza kuvavanywa phambi kweNkundla ngokubhekiselele kwihambo eyakhela isiseko solwaphulo-mthetho umntu agwetywe okanye akhululwe yiNkundla. Iyakuchaza ukuba akukho mntu uza kuvavanywa ngetyala elithile kwi-ICICC ukuba i-IC sele ivavamile ukuba umntu unya ihambo efanayo. Noko ke, umahluko omkhulu ukho: ukuba iziphumo zasekhaya zenziwe ukuba zikhusele umntu kwityala lolwaphulo-mthetho, okanye aziphethengacacingi, okanye azikho ngokuzikhethayo, i-ICMPlal ukuqhubeka nokuvavanywa oku. "ukuvavanywa kwendlela yokunga "ukuvavanywa kwe-RG.

Iinkundla ze-hoc zeRwanda neyayiyiYugoslavia zinemiqathango efanayo. Ngokomzekelo, i-ICTY Scyte, ibopha inkundla yeSigqeba nezohlanga ukuba iphinde iphikise umntu emva komgwebo wokugqibela weTribunal, kodwa ivumela iTribunal ukuba iphikise umntu ukuba inkundla yesizwe ityala liyinkqubo engekho mthethweni. Oku kuqinisekisa ukuba abaphumeli bezenzo zenkohlakalo abanakukuphepha ukugwetywa zweni lonke ngokuxhaphaza amatyala esizwe.

Ungquzulwano Lwamagwebo

Enye yezona mbambano zinzima kumthetho wehlabathi lonke wolwaphulo-mthetho yinkqubano phakathi kwemiqathango yesizwe neyomhlaba wonke. Umzekelo, ukuba inkundla yesizwe ikhulula umntu wohlanga ngenxa yobungqina obunganele, ingammangalela na kamva loo mntu kwizenzo ezifanayo? Phantsi kweSigqeba samaRoma soMthetho wamatyala, i-ICC ingaqhubeka kuphela ukuba ityala lesizwe lalihloselwe ukukhusela ummangalelwa. Oku kulungelelanisa ngenyameko ukuhlonela ulawulo lukarhulumente kunye nemfuneko yokusohlwaywa. Ngokuqhelisa, i-ICP ibingafane isebenzise le mithetho engaqhelekanga, kodwa ihlala ikhusela ekutshabhinisweni.

Ukudibana neenkqubo zomthetho weSizwe

Iinkundla zesizwe zisoloko zijongene nombuzo wokuba ingaba ingawahlonela na amatyala aphindiweyo. Kumazwe amaninzi aqhelekileyo omthetho, umgaqo "wolwaphulo-mthetho oluqhelekileyo" awuqashelwa ngokuzenzekelayo kwimigwebo yamanye amazwe. Umzekelo, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaseUnited States, ukugawula v. United States[FLT] [[1] [2029], uqinisekisa "ulawulo lomntu", okuvumela ukuba omabini urhulumente norhulumente atshutshise umntu othile ngenxa yehambo efanayo. Ngokufanayo, umthetho wezizwe ngezizwe zonke awufuni ukuba kufune ukuba kubekwe umthetho wokuba atshutshiswe xa urhulumente wolunye uhlanga sele emvavanye umntu, ngaphandle kokuba isivumelwano sibonelele njalo.

Noko ke, intsingiselo ibhekisa kulwamkelo olukhulu. I-European Union ihambele phambili, ngeGatya 50 leTshata yamaLungelo asisiseko kunye neSchengen acquis ezifuna ukuba amazwe angamalungu ahlonele izahlulelo zokugqibela ezivela kwamanye amazwe angamalungu kwiimeko ezibandakanya ihambo efanayo. Oku kuqiniswa yimithetho ebhanki yeNqaba, equka indawo yokwala ukuba umntu sele egwetyiwe ekugqibeleni. Ngaphandle kweYurophu, umgaqo awumiselwanga kangako, kodwa amanye amazwe (njengeKhanada neAustralia) anemimiselo okanye anika isiphumo somthetho kumazwe angaphandle phantsi kweemeko ezithile.

Iingxaki Neengxaki Zangaphambili

Phezu kwayo nje inkqubela, kusekho iingxaki eziliqela ekusetyenzisweni kwengozi ephindwe kabini kumthetho wamalungelo abantu wamazwe ngamazwe.

Ityala Nobungqina Bamanani

Ngokwanda kwe-inthaneti, urhulumente omninzi usenokuba negunya kwisenzo esinye (umz., uhlaselo oluxhotyisiweyo olundululwe kwelinye ilizwe elihlasela amaxhoba kwamanye amaninzi). Umngcipheko wokubekwa kwetyala ngoonobumba yinto yokwenene. Iindlela zentsebenziswano zezizwe ngezizwe njengeBudapest Convention on Cybercrime aziyiphenduli ngokupheleleyo iingxwaleko eziphindwe kabini, zishiya abantu besengozini yokuhlaselwa ngokusemthethweni.

Ukulwa ne-Trorrism nokhuseleko lwesiZwe

Kwiziphumo zohlaselo lwabanqolobi, amanye amaphondo aye azama ukuzama ukuphinda azame abantu ababesele bekhululwe kwelinye icala, echaza ukuba lukhulu kwetyala. Abameli bamalungelo abantu baphikisa ukuba oku kulula ukugqiba umgaqo. Uxanduva phakathi kokhuseleko lwesizwe kunye nengozi ephindwe kabini lungakhula njengoko amaphondo efumana imithetho echasene nezenzo zobuqhetseba.

Umthetho Wokuveliswa Kwemali Ehlabathini Lonke

Ingingqi eqhambukayo kukudibana kwengozi ephindwe kabini nenkxwaleko yetyala lomtshayeli-mali. Xa inkampani igwetyelwa ulwaphulo-mthetho kwilizwe elinye ngenxa yomonakalo wemekobume, ingamangalelwa kwelinye ilizwe phantsi kwesivumelwano sotyalo-mali esithe gqolo-gqaba ngenxa yehambo efanayo? Iinkundla zeArbitral azikaphuhlisi indlela engaguquguqukiyo, kodwa imbambano ichaphazela amaxabiso angundoqo okugqibela nobulungisa.

Isiphelo

Izivumelwano zamalungelo abantu zamazwe ngamazwe zinikela isiseko esibalulekileyo sokukhusela abantu kwiingozi eziphindwe kabini kumgangatho wamazwe ngamazwe. I-ICCPR, iECHR, iNdibano yaseMerika, kunye nezinye izixhobo zimisela imithetho ecacileyo ethintela ukuba umntu angatyhafi ngokuphindaphindiweyo okanye asohlwaye ngenxa yesohlwayo esifanayo. Noko ke, umgaqo awupheleli ngokupheleleyo: ngaphandle kobungqina obutsha, iziphene ezikhoyo, kunye namatyala okungagwetywanga kuqinisekisa ukuba okusesikweni kusenokunceda. Ngaphezu koko, ukunqongophala komthetho wendalo wonke kwingozi ephinda kabini kuhlala kungumsantsalo obalulekileyo, ingakumbi kulwaphulo-mthetho.

Njengoko ukudityaniswa kwehlabathi kunye nemibutho esemthethweni isenza kube nokudityaniswa okukhawulezileyo, imfuneko yokuvumelanisa ukhuseleko oluphindiweyo kwiimeko ezikumazwe ahlukeneyo luza kukhula. Iinkundla zezezolwaphulo-mthetho zamazwe ngamazwe zibonise ukuba kunokwenzeka ukulungelelanisa ugqibelo nokuphendula ityala, kwaye imibutho yemimandla efana ne-European Union iye yalungela iinkqubo zokwazisana. Ukuze amalungelo abantu ahlonelwe ngokupheleleyo, amaphondo kufuneka aqhubeke evelisa iinkqubo zokukhusela iingcebiso ezixhaphazayo ngoxa eshiya igumbi lokuzikopela ngokusemthethweni kwinzala yokusesikweni. Ukuqonda la malungiselelo eencwadi ayimfuneko kooogqirha, abacwangcinkqubo, nabani nabani na oxhalabeleneyo ngomthetho kwihlabathi elintsonkothileyo.