Ukwazisa: Imfundiso Engavisisaniyo Nemeko Yayo

Imfundiso yoNxulumaniso lweNkqutyana yenye yezona ziphuhliso ziphambili kumthetho-siseko waseMelika. Ngothotho lwezigqibo eziqala ekupheleni kwenkulungwane yeshumi elinethoba kwaye ngokukhawuleza emva kweNew Deal, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. “ifake” uninzi lwezikhuselo kwiBhili yamaLungelo nxamnye namazwe ngokudlula kwi-ST Procession Claus of the 144th Amelikand Remplifincice. Oku kuthetha ukuba inkululeko efana nentetho, ishicilela, unqulo, kunye necebo lokudibanisa urhulumente wasekuhlaleni ngoku, kanye njengokuba bebopha urhulumente.

Kodwa ibali lokungeniswa alilolololo rhulumente kuphela. "iinkundla eziphakamileyo zelizwe]. Inkundla ephakamileyo yezomthetho kwiphondo ngalinye"idlala indima enamandla, ngokufuthi ephantsi kwegunya ekulungiseni loo malungelo aqondwayo, asetyenziswa, kwaye anwebe. Ngoxa iNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. imisela umgangatho wesizwe, iinkundla zeli lizwe zinganikela umgangatho ophezulu wokukhusela ngaphantsi kwemimiselo yazo. Izigqibo zazo zingaphembelela imfundiso karhulumente, zivelise iiklabhurela-data ezisemthethweni zamalungelo encwadi, yaye maxa wambi zinyanzelele iNkundla ePhakamileyo ye-U.

Eli nqaku lihlolisisa iindlela ezininzi zokuchaza iinkundla eziphakamileyo ziphembelela iNkundla ePhakamileyo, ukusuka ekutolikeni izizathu ezizimeleyo zikarhulumente ukuya kumisela imizekelo ekhoyo kwinkqubo karhulumente. Siza kuhlolisisa amatyala angundoqo, izizathu zokwakha le mpembelelo, kunye nemiqathango egcina ulwalamano phakathi kweenkundla zikarhulumente ne-oventine lunamandla kunokuba lubekho.

Isiseko sokwakha: Umanyano noBukhosi

Ukusiqonda isizathu sokuba iinkundla eziphakamileyo zivakalise imibandela ephakamileyo yeSivumelwano soburhulumente baseMelika, umntu kufuneka aqale aqonde ingqiqo yomthetho-siseko weMelika. I-United States asiyonkqubo yomanyano; amazwe ahlala enegunya elibalulekileyo, kuquka igunya lokugcina umgaqo-siseko wawo, imimiselo, nezithethe zomthetho oqhelekileyo. UMgaqo-siseko wase-U.S., ngokusebenzisa iSuprematy Claus, umisela umthetho ophakamileyo welizwe, kodwa amazwe akhululekile ukunyusa ukhuseleko olukhulu kubemi bawo kunokuba umGaqo-siseko wesizwe ufuna njalo xa engaphulani umGaqo-siseko womthetho.

Lo mgaqo, odla ngokubizwa ngokuba “ziziziqinisekiso zikarhulumente ezizimeleyo nezifanelekileyo,” uvumela inkundla ephakamileyo yelizwe ukuba isekele isigqibo sayo ngokupheleleyo kumthetho karhulumente. Xa inkundla yelizwe igqiba ngetyala kumatyala azimeleyo, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. ayiyi kusihlola, kuba akukho mbuzo unikiweyo ngurhulumente. Oku kudala isixhobo esinamandla seenkundla zikarhulumente ukwandisa amalungelo angaphaya komgaqo karhulumente ngaphandle kokoyika ukutshintsha.

Ngokomzekelo, kwiminyaka yee-1970, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaseKhalifoniya yachaza igalelo lomgaqo-siseko weli lizwe lokungamela ukujongwa kwemiqathango engekho mthethweni esemva kwenqanawa (indawo elungileyo esemva kwenqanawa) ngelo xesha, ukuba iNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.E. Ngelo xesha, ibingekavunywa phantsi koMphengululo wesine. Olu rhulumente lunyulo aluzange lungqubaniswe nomthetho karhulumente; longezelela umaleko ongakumbi wokukhusela. Izigqibo ezinjalo zibonisa ukuba iNkuphetho yokwahlukana ayiso sitrato esisuka eWashington ukuya kumazwe. Endaweni, yingxoxo apho iinkundla zeli lizwe zithetha okokuqala, yaye maxa lilandelana iinkundla zikarhulumente.

UmGaqo-siseko weSizwe njengoMsebenzi waMalungelo

Isifaniso samatyala “njengoomatshini bolawulo-mpukane,” abadume ngokubanzi beqanjwe nguJaji uLouis Brandeis, usebenza ngamandla apheleleyo kumalungelo omgaqo-siseko. Iinkundla eziphakamileyo zikarhulumente zisoloko zizama iinkcazelo ezincinane eziphembelela kamva umthetho wesizwe. Oku kuyinyaniso ngakumbi kwiindawo apho iNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. ibimadolw ’ anzima ukwenza okanye apho umbhalo weSigqeba se-Federal Brandel samalungelo ushiya igumbi logcino-mGcimbini.

Ukusasaza Intetho Yakho Nezikhuseli Zomsebenzi

Enye indawo apho iinkundla zikarhulumente zisebenza ngokukhethekileyo kukuthetha ngokukhululekileyo. Ngelixesha uMmiselo wokuqala umisela umgangatho ophantsi, umgaqo-siseko wesizwe omninzi uqulathe ulwimi olukhusela ngakumbi umsebenzi wentelekelelo. Umzekelo, umGaqo-siseko weOregon wenkululeko yokuthetha, owamkelwa ngo1857, utolikwa yinkundla ePhakamileyo yeOregon ukuze inikezele ukhuseleko olubanzi lwentetho echaphazelekayo nentetho yomfuziselo. Siteginlv v. ICiannillic [2009], inkundla ixhasa ilungelo lokusasaza izinto ezicacileyo ngokwesini ezithe ngqo ezinokuthi iU.S. Inkundla ephakamileyo yayisele ibekwe phantsi kwemigangatho yemithetho karhulumente. Ngokulawula isigqibo senkundla yenkundla ekwanokukwazi ukugqobhoza imfundiso yemithetho-mthetho.

Ngokufanayo, iNkundla yezibheno yaseNew York isoloko ithatha imbono enkulu yokuzichaza ngokukhululekileyo, ingakumbi kumatyala abandakanya ukuvalwa kwangaphambili namalungelo abasebenzi bakawonke-wonke. Olesik v. Elmsford Union Free School District , inkundla isebenzise uvavanyo lwezomgaqo-siseko lwaseburhulumenteni olwakhusela umfundisi-lwazi lwezentlalo-ntle ngokunamandla kunalo vavanyo lwesizwe. Ezi zigqibo aziyi ngxaki ngqo kwi-Incorporation Doctrine, kodwa zenza iqum yomthetho yetyala ethethayo maxa kuthethwa ngurhulumente.

Ukwandisa imfihlo kunye nenkqubo elindelekileyo

Umthetho-siseko worhulumente ungomnye ummandla apho iinkundla zikarhulumente zikhokele khona. UmGaqo-siseko wase-U.S. awuqulathanga ilungelo elicacileyo lokuzimela, kodwa iNkundla ePhakamileyo iye yakhupha omnye kwiBhili yamaLungelo. Umgaqo-siseko worhulumente oninzi, ngokwahlukileyo, uneengxelo ezicacileyo zemfihlo. UMgaqo-siseko waseCalifornia, oye walungiswa ngowe1972, uquka “ilungelo lokufumana imfihlo” ukuba inkundla yawo ephakamileyo itolike ngokunamandla. uHill v. National Collegiate Association of Athletic Association [[FLT:] [1994], inkundla yeliye ikholelwa ukuba imicimbi yezobuqu isebenza kakuhle kubadlali bobucala njengorhulumente, ihamba phambili lee mfuneko ze-Genetting transfective. Ezi zinto zidala ukukhuselwa kwegunyaza izigwebo kodwa zikwane igunya lezomthetho zegunya lezomthetho ezijongene.

Ngaphezu koko, iinkundla zelizwe ziye zawaphuhlisa amalungelo angekaququzelelwa yiNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. njengelungelo lemfundo eyaneleyo. Abott v. Burke [1985], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaseNew Jersey yathi umgaqo-siseko wafuna inkxaso yesikolo esemthethweni, isityholo sokuba iNkundla ePhakamileyo ye-U.S. iNkundla ePhakamileyo iLahla phantsi kokhuseleko olulinganayo ku- ISAN Antonio Independent [FLT] kuSikolo soluvolk. Rodriguez [7]). Nangona inkundla yezomthetho-mthetho ibonise indlela ezinokuzalisa ngayo iipesenti ezishiye i-judiary.

Indlela Izigqibo Zenkundla Ephakamileyo Zeli lizwe Eziwuchaphazela Ngayo Umthetho Wesizwe

Impembelelo yeenkundla eziphakamileyo zephondo kwiNguquko yemfundiso ayiphelelanga ekudaleni iziphene ezizimeleyo zephondo. Izigqibo zikarhulumente zinokubumba intsingiselo engqalileyo yomGaqo-siseko wephondo ngeendlela eziliqela.

Igunya elikhuthazayo nophuhliso lwemigangatho yesizwe

Iinkundla zomanyano, kuquka iNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S., zisoloko zicaphula izimvo zenkundla yenkundla njengegunya eliye labangela ukuba abantu bafumane izilumkiso, ingakumbi xa bexa bexabana neengxelo zomthetho ezincinane. Umzekelo, kwisigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo yaseCalifornia imanda v. Arizona[ (1966], iNkuNkundla ePhakamileyo yayikholelwa kwinxalenye yezigwebo zenkundla yezorhulumente ezazisele zifake izilumkiso kwimiqathango yogunyaziso. Nangona iNkundla ePhakamileyo yesizwe imisele umgaqo wetyala [FLT.FLT:2] v. Dorado [1965]])) inyaniso ngokomthetho wesizwe esinika isikhokelo setyala.

Ngokufanayo, Mapp v.Oo (1961) isigqibo, esaquka umthetho wokuzihlukanisa nxamnye namazwe, saphenjelelwa luvavanyo lwenkundla yenkundla yelizwe. Amazwe amaninzi ayesele emkele imithetho yokuzikhulula phantsi komgaqo-siseko wawo okanye umthetho oqhelekileyo, kunye neNkundla ku Mapp yaphawula ukuba la mava abonisa ukusebenza komthetho. Ngalo ndlela iinkundla zelizwe zasebenza njengezizathu zokuqinisekisa ukuquququzelelwa komthetho worhulumente.

Ukuvelisa Iingxabano Ezikhuthaza Ingxubusho YeNkundla Ephakamileyo

Iinkundla eziphakamileyo zelizwe zisenokunyanzela isandla seNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. ngokudala ukwahlukana kwegunya. Xa inkundla yephondo ichaza ilungelo lomGaqo-siseko ngendlela engqubana nemizekelo yeNkundla ePhakamileyo, iNkundla isenokunika imvume yokuba iCertiori isombulule ukuphikisana. Umzekelo, [FLT]...Obergefell v. Hodges [202013], iNkuhlebo ePhakamileyo kwafuneka isombulule ingxabano phakathi kweenkundla ezibhenelayo zephondo ezikwinkundla eziphakamileyo eziphakamisayo eziye zaxhasa ukuvalwa komtshato kunye nezigunyaziso zephondo (njengeNkuNkungasese-Akakhulu ye-Mexico] [Flct:2]]Grie .[FLT] 2013]) i-Orderns yale ifunde imode imode eyathi yemithetho efuna ukuqwala ingulo. Ngezomthetho ekwane, yalo yalo yabala ingulo ingu

Kutshanje, iinkundla eziphakamileyo zikhupha izigqibo ezingomlinganiselo womzimba ofanelekileyo wokuzikhusela, isiganeko sokufuna ukubamba, nengozi ephindwe kabini ebangelwa yimilinganiselo karhulumente. Xa iNkundla Ephakamileyo yaseUnited States ithabatha iimbambano ezinjalo, idla ngokuyilungisa le mfundiso.

Ukubeka iTrees kazwelonke “Ngenkqubo Entsha Yomanyano”

Ngexesha lee-1970 kunye nee-1980, umbutho owaziwa ngokuba “yiNkundla ePhakamileyo yeSihlalo” wabona iinkundla ezininzi eziphakamileyo zivulela phambili ngamandla amalungelo angaphaya kweBriger neRehnquist Courts. INkundla ePhakamileyo yaseAlaska, ngokomzekelo, yachaza umgaqo-siseko wayo wesizwe ukunikela ukhuseleko olungakumbi ekuhlolweni kwezithuthi ezingenagunya kunee-U. iNkundla ePhakamileyo evunyelwe phantsi kweSinyuko sesine. Inkundla ePhakamileyo yawaphula ngokufanayo amalungelo karhulumente kwiindawo ezinjengemibathwali kunye namalungelo okuvavanya ityala. Ezi zigqibo zadala iqumrhululo lomthetho womgaqo-mthetho osemthethweni eyaba yimbekelwe yimbekelwe yingcasa kwiingcali, ii-ligrafiggn. Ngoxa iNkundla yeNkundla yase-U.

Imizekelo Ephawulekayo Yempembelelo Karhulumente

Ukuze sibonise indlela iinkundla eziphakamileyo zelizwe ezinegalelo ngayo kwimfundiso engokwahlukileyo, kuluncedo ukuhlolisisa amatyala ambalwa abalaseleyo.

INkundla Ephakamileyo YaseKhalifoniya Namalungelo Okuzifihla

Ngo-1972, abavoti baseCalifornia bongeza ilungelo elicacileyo lokuzimela umgaqo-siseko wesizwe. Inkundla ePhakamileyo yaseCalifornia yakhawuleza yanika eli lungiselelo. White v. Davis[[FLT:] [197], inkundla yathi abantu belizwe babengenazimfihlo ezikhuselekileyo kwintlanganiso zamapolisa ezingenagunyaziso,[FLT] [12], inkundla isebenzise umgaqo wesizwe ukufuna iziphumo eziphezulu zemoto. Inkundla ephakamileyo yavumela [FLT]. Kamva, [[FLT] ku-FLT] [2].[5] [ethe]

INkundla YaseNew York Yezibheno Nenkqubo Yezaphuli - mthetho

Inkundla ephakamileyo yaseNew York ibisoloko ingumqhubi wenkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho. Abantu bayivovovo. Anderson [1997], iNkundla yezibheno yaseNew York ichaza icebo lasekunene lelizwe lokukhupha imvume yokuba amapolisa ayeke ukubuza umkroki ocelw'ecela igqwetha, nokuba umthetho okrokrelekileyo kamva waqalisa umgaqo othe gqolo olungqongqo kunomthetho karhulumente okhoyo “uvavanyo olungqongqo olungaphantsi , iEdwards v. Arizona (1981) (1). Inkundla yelizwe yakhankanya ngokunelisayo ukuba umthetho“New York' owanikela ukhuseleko olubanzi nxamnye nokhuthulo lawulo. Esi sigqibo asizange siguqule ngokohlobo oluthile, kodwa sanikela imode yathi intelelo ezininzi ezithi zisetyenziswe ngoluvo lwamanyeneyo.

INkundla Ephakamileyo yaseWashington Namalungelo Emfundo

Isiqendu seSithili semfundo uNo. 1 v. uRhulumente [1988], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yeWashington yathi umthetho-siseko ufuna ukuba indlu yowiso-mthetho “yenze amalungiselelo aneleyo okufundisa bonke abantwana.” Esi sigqibo, esisekelwe kumgaqo-mfundo karhulumente, saseka umsebenzi lowo iNkundla ePhakamileyo yala ukuwubeka phantsi kwe-145th Amendmentality. Nangona ingeyotyala lesivumelwano, sibonisa indlela iinkundla zikarhulumente ezinokuwakha ngayo amalungelo anxulumene namalungelo asemthethweni, kwaye iphembelela umjikelo wemfundo yesikolo kamva enkxaso-mali ezwe lonke.

Iingxaki Nempembelelo Elinganiselweyo Karhulumente

Phezu kwawo nje amandla azo aphawulekayo, masithi iinkundla eziphakamileyo zijamelene neengxaki zokwenene xa zizama ukubumba i - Incorporation Doctrine.

IMida yeSizwe neNkcubeko kaClaus

Umlinganiselo ocacileyo womda welizwe. Inkundla ephakamileyo yelinye ityala ilawula kuphela ngaphakathi kwelo lizwe. Ngelinye ixesha ingcelele kwezinye iinkundla, ayinagunya lokumisela imizekelo yesizwe. Ngaphezu koko, ukuba isigqibo senkundla yelizwe siyangqubana nenkundla yezomthetho njengoko sichazwa yiNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S., isigqibo sorhulumente asisebenzi phantsi kweSupremacy Claus. Umzekelo, ukuba inkundla ephakamileyo yelizwe ibinokubambelela kwisigqibo sikaClausleas asisebenzi konke kwilizwe (ukuthi kuchasene neS.] V.

Iingcinezelo Zezobupolitika Nezeziko

Abagwebi abaphakamileyo benkundla yezorhulumente badla ngonyulwa okanye bathotyelwe lunyulo, bebenza babe ngakulungela ngakumbi uxinezeleko lwezopolitiko kuneejaji zesizwe ezimiselwe ubomi obumiselweyo. Oku kunokukhokelela kwizigqibo ezingqinelana kakhulu noluvo lukawonke-wonke kunokuba zivumelane neenkqubo zomgaqo-siseko wesizwe. Ngokomzekelo, iinkundla ezininzi zephondo ziye zachaza umgaqo-siseko wazo ukuba zithintele amalungelo azo kunokuba zandise amalungelo, ingakumbi kwiindawo ezifana nokuqhomfa okanye ukulawula imipu. Ngo-2018181818, iNkundla ePhakathiweyo ye-Iodwa, ilawulwa nguninzi olunobumba, yawisa umthetho ongqongqo wokuqhomfa phantsi komgaqo-siseko wesizwe obekelwe phantsi kwemigaqo yezomthetho karhulumente. Emva kweenkomkhulu yezopolitiko.

Ubungozi “bokucinywa Yingozi Yobomi”

Kwanaxa iinkundla zikarhulumente zandisa ukhuseleko, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. ngamanye amaxesha inokuthi “izigwebo ezithi tyenziswayo” ngokuvakalisa umgangatho karhulumente ukuba ube ngumlinganiso okhethekileyo. Umzekelo, Lockyer v.Andrade [2003] [iNkundla ePhakamileyo], ikholelwa ukuba uwiso lweSindululo seMpathiso sithintelwe yinkohlakalo nesohlwayo esingaqhelekanga samazwe ekusebenziseni uhlolo olunelo olungqongqo ngaphandle kokuba urhulumente ulwe kuphela kumthetho worhulumente. Olu hlobo lwemigangatho yorhulumente ephakamileyo,-2003 [2003] lungamisela amandla ekwasemthethweni okuphembelela impembelelo.

Isiphumo: Igalelo Elinamandla LeeNkundla

Iinkundla eziphakamileyo zelizwe zingaphezulu kakhulu kunabamkeli abangekho mthethweni beNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.Azingomalungu akhutheleyo ekuphuhlisweni okuqhubekayo kwe-Incorporation Doctrine. Ngokuchaza umgaqo-siseko worhulumente wazo, zinako ukwandisa amalungelo angaphaya kolawulo olusisiseko, zivelise igunya eleyiselayo eliphembelela izigqibo zikarhulumente, lize livelise iingxabano ezikhawulezisa ulungiso kumthetho we-orhulumente. Ukusuka kwiNkuqululo-ngasese yase-Orenia olukhululekileyo, iinkundla zephondo ziye zabonisa ngokuphindaphindiwe ukuba ukuquququzelelana kwengxoxo yendlela ekwimimandla engama-1940 ephakamileyo kodwa inkqubo enamandla, i-operatertive.

Njengoko kuvela imingeni emitsha ngezantsi, iindawo ezifana ne-apply, amalungelo okuzala, kunye nenkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho oluphezulu ngokungathandabuzekiyo inkundla ephakamileyo iza kuqhubeka ivavanya imida yokusebenzisana. Izigqibo zazo ziya kuba njengeelaboratori, imiqondiso elumkisayo, yaye maxa wambi zibe neplani yokuncokola kwesizwe. Kubafundi bomthetho-siseko, ukuqonda indima yeenkundla zikarhulumente kubalulekile ekuqondeni indlela iBhili yamaLungelo asebenza ngayo ngokwenene kumazwe angamashumi amahlanu.

[[UMTLL:0] kufundo oluqhubekayo, bona:[[UMTLL: 1]